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THE ANNALS
AND
MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY,
INCLUDING ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, ann GEOLOGY.
(BEING A CONTINUATION OF THR ‘ANNALS’ COMBINED WITH LOUDON AND CHARLESWORTH ’S ‘MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY. )
CONDUCTED BY
CHARLES C. BABINGTON, Esa., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., JOHN EDWARD GRAY, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., V.P.Z.S. &c., WILLIAM S. DALLAS, F.L.S.,
AND
WILLIAM FRANCIS, Ph.D., F.L.S.
~_—seea
if
VOL. I.—FOURTH SERIBS& conian ing ooN
( a e5\ 05 \\
Jf
ational Museu™ . Af ——
LONDON:
PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS.
SOLD BY LONGMANS, GREEN, READER, AND DYER, SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, AND CO.; KENT AND CO.; BAILLIERE, REGENT STREET, AND PARIS: MACLACHLAN AND STEWART, EDINBURGH :
HODGES AND SMITH, DUBLIN: AND ASHER, BERLIN.
1868.
“‘Omnes res create sunt divine sapientiz et potentize testes, divitiz felicitatis humane :—ex harum usu donitas Creatoris; ex pulchritudine sapientia Domini ; eX economia in conseryatione, proportione, renovatione, potentia rmajestatis elucet. Earum itaque indagatio ab hominibus sibi relictis semper zstimata ; a yeré eruditis et sapientibus semper exculta; malé doctis et barbaris semper ‘inimica fuit.”—Linnavs. ,
“Quel que soit le principe de la vie animale, il ne faut quouvrir les yeux pour voir qu’elle est le chef-d’ceuvre de la Toute-puissance, et le but auquel se rappor- tent toutes ses opérations.”—Bruckner, Théorie du Systéme Animal, Leyden, 1767.
Sites sepaitts VOR stem en coe The sylvan powers Obey our summons; from their deepest dells The Dryads come, and throw their garlands wild And odorous branches at our feet; the Nymphs That press with nimble step the mountain-thyme And purple heath-flower come not empty-handed, But scatter round ten thousand forms minute Of velvet moss or lichen, torn from rock Or rifted oak or cayern deep: the Naiads too Quit their loved native stream, from whose smooth face They crop the lily, and each sedge and rush That drinks the rippling tide: the frozen poles, Where peril waits the bold adyenturer’s tread, The burning sands of Borneo and Cayenne, All, all to us unlock their secret stores And pay their cheerful tribute.
J. Taytor, Norwich, 1818.
QD ob 5
CONTENTS OF VOL. I.
[FOURTH SERIES. ]
NUMBER I.
I. On the Structure of the Mouth in Sucking Crustacea. By Prof. J.C. Scur6ptr. (Plate I.)
II. Notule Lichenologice. No. XIX. By the Rev. W. A. LEIGHTON, B.A., F.L.S. —Dr. Th. M. Fries on new Species of Lichens
Ce
III. Note on the Phascolomys setosus (Gray) and P. nee (Gould). By Prof. M‘Coy
IV. Note on the Existence of Gigantic Sea-Anemones in the China Sea, containing within them quasi-parasitic Fish. By Dr. C. Coxtinewoon, F.L.S. ......
V. On the Lritability of Plants. By C. BLonpEAavu
ee
Cn ee
ec ee
VI. Revision of the Species of Hyrax, founded on the Serer in the British Museum. By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S., V.P:Z.8.
VIL. On Globiocephalus Grayi, noy. spec. By Dr. HERMANN Bummer (ere wh, fess: 2 ded), jis fon vs mctea yaa manele nis oe
VIII. On anew Volute. By Prof. M‘Coy. (Plate II. fig. 1.) .
IX. On the Nature and Zoological Position of the Graptolhtide. By Henry ALLEYNE NicHoLson, D.Sc., M.B., F.G.S. (Plate IIT.)
X. On the Miocene Flora of the Polar Regions. By Professor O. ETHER s Std cah ohd tort a aeeMn cocci Sata eNe tat dem Ka diaiivatarond shelter siamese XI. Remarks upon the Papilio Cocytus of Fabricius, and its dis- tinctness from the Adolias Cocytus of Authors. By A. G. Bes) -F.ZS8.
Cc
New Book :—Figures of Characteristic British Fossils, with Descrip- tive Remarks, by William Hellier Baily, F.L.S., F.G.S., &. Part I., pages i-xxiv & 1-30, Plates IX.
Ce CET CC ee Oe Cat ee eet Ak ICY
On the Structure of the Eye in the Gasteropoda, and on the Develop- ment of the Eyes in the Animal Series, by V. Hensen ; Adan- son’s Black Crocodile, by Dr. J. E. Gray; Rare British Sharks ; The Australian Representative of Cynthia cardi, by Prof, M‘Coy
Page
70
(a
73—76
iv CONTENTS.
NUMBER II.
XII. Notes on various Species of Ctenodus obtained from the Shales of the Northumberland Coal-field. By Tuomas ATTHEY
XIII. On the presence of two Glandular Sacs in the Cephalothorax of the Phalangude. By Dr: A. KROEN 000. b Ai eee ce as ce eeae
XIV. Observations on the Distribution of some Species of Nudi-
ane Mollusca in the China Sea. By Dr. C. CoLtinewoop, LS. :
SPs eee eye pee 6 mm a, 8 ele) Sees 6, 6 = Wwe (690 80 8 s\,0% 8 60 \eele «6 6 hee savers
XV. Remarks on the Names applied to the British Hemiptera Heteroptera. By Francis P. Pasco, F.LS. &e. .......0 2c eee
XVI. Notes on the Sexes of the Cocytus Group of the Genus midokgs.” by ANG. Burisn, PAs. Solita cs saw oes Cole cite tie aiese
XVII. Observations on Sea-Bears (Otariade), and especially on the Fur-Seals and Hair-Seals of the Falkland Islands and Southern America. By Dr. J.B. Gray, F.R.S., V.P.Z8., F.LS., &e.,., 02.
XVUI. On the Occurrence of Diplommatina Huttoni and Ennea bicolor in the West Indies. By Wii11am T. Buanrorp, F.G.S., MOTE eal ala alee « dare GaN G Ue ee: sate Siku lora hn eisle te itary eiage ate
XIX. On the Discovery of a new and Gigantic Fossil Species of Echidna in Australia. By Grrarp Krerrt, Curator and Secretary of thé Austrahan Museum, Sydney... 0. Dene css ees eas
XX. On the “ Vitreous” Sponges. By Prof. WyviLLE THomson, BED ERO, EeGrea, Motels OCP iate EVGy etter Se ce clones
XXI. Notule Lichenologice. No. XX. By the Rev. W. A. | PEPER OS GB AUe Nee ah De AER NEE adie 0) 5.8 Seah eer g Pe NT
XXII. On the Spongie ciliate as Infusoria flagellata; or Observa- tions on the Structure, Animality, and Relationship of Lewcosolenia botryoides, Bowerbank. By H. James-Cuark, A.B., B.S., Professor of Natural History in the Agricultural College of Pennsylvania. PEatee Meow ea VAlbs) tas waters ales wi aipielo yee GMS Lienath ae es tlehees Seer
New Books :—The Natural History of the Tineina, by H.T. Stainton. Vol. X.—The Tineina of Syria and Asia Minor, by H. T. Stain- ton, F.L.S.—The Fishes of Zanzibar. ACANTHOPTERYGII, by Lieut.-Colonel R. Lambert Playfair, Her Majesty’s Political Agent and Consul at Zanzibar. PHaryNGoGNATHI &c., by
Page
Tt
87
94
99
110
118
114
133
Albert C. L. G. Gunther, M.A:, Ph.D., M-D.*.......62. 142—144
Procecdinog of the Royal Society. «4.4! ug as cars Lae Salah vane ve pe
Errata in Localities of Indian and Burmese Squirrels—Necessity of defining more exactly what is understood by India, by William T. Blanford; Preservation of Objectsof Natural History, by Wil- mot H. T. Power, Assistant-Surgeon, 13th Light Infantry ; On Leskia mirabilis, by Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &c.; Macacus lasvotus, a new Ape from China, by Dr. J. E. Gray; Additions to the
CONTENTS. Vv
Page Zoological Collection in the British Museum; On Pteronura Sanbachii, an Otter from Surinam, by Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S, &e. ; Artificial Hybridization in the Genus Gossypium, by J. E. Bal-
SENN ors onsale et Gia 6 esetaiel tant share 1S pia. ie Pare ATR Bia 151—155 NUMBER III. XXIII. On the new Bat (Amblyotus atratus) discovered by Prof. Molenage) By 1. El SWI T ERR stead costs oie ee cad ges 157
XXIV. Observations on Sponges and on their Arrangement and Nomenclature. By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S., V.P.Z.S., F.L.S., &e... 161
XXV. On Autolytus prolifer. By Dr. R. Grurrr. (Plate VIIL) 173
XXVI. Notule Lichenologice. No. XXI. By the Rev. W. A. Leienton, B.A., F.L.S.—Rev. E. Williams’s List of Shropshire MGM ape sracare a cet 6 he Waren is sia #2 Gi ars a 06,0 elk Soop aunt barela a, 5 nieve lane ere oe 185
XXVII. On the Spongie ciliate as Infusoria flagellata; or Obser- ' vations on the Structure, Animality, and Relationship of Leucosolenia botryoides, Bowerbank. By H. JameEs-Cuiark, A.B., B.S., Professor of Natural History in the Agricultural College of Pennsylvania.... 188
XXVIII. Observations on the Fur-Seals of the Antarctic Seas and the Cape of Good Hope, with the Description of a new Species. ERG UIT Pa GREAT EUs Ws adi Sei Ge vistas 8's OCA oe ten ep ole es 215
Proceodines of the Royal Societys. oo. 0. a esc ce eee eee’ 220
Size of Foetus of the Pilot Dolphin, by Dr. J. E. Gray; Notice of a remarkable new Genus of Corals, probably typical of a new Family, by F. B. Meek; Note on the Polymorphism of the Anthozoa and the Structure of the Tubipore, by A. Kolliker ; On the Saliva and Salivary Organs of Dolium galea and other Mollusca, by MM. 8. de Luca and P. Panceri; On an Herma- phrodite Nemertian (Borlasia hermaphroditica) from St. Malo, by W. Keferstein; Anatomical Investigation of some Blind Colen tera, by M. C. Lespés; Action of the Induction-current upon Plants, by C. Blondeau; On the first Formation of the
body in the Vertebrata, by Prof. His.................. 224—231 NUMBER IV. XXIX. On Lithodomous Annelids. By HE. Ray LanxkestER, Junior Student of Christ Church, Oxford. (Plate XL) .......... 235
XXX. On the Occurrence of the Genus Ptilograpsus in Britain ; with Notes on the Ludlow Graptolites. By HENRY ALLEYNE Sicwersni, Dice, MB EGS de saa's oi vos oilbeeh Oe pada saends 238
XXXI. On the Geographical Distribution of the Balenide or Right Whales. By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S., V.P.Z.8., F.LS., &... 242
XXXII. On a Variety of Spongilla Meyent from the River Exe, Devonshire | By EJ, CARTIER, FERS. Galea lees isso Hele oth in be 247
vi CONTENTS.
Page XXXIII. On the Spongie ciliate as “i Meee Jlagellata ; or Obser- vations on the Structure, Animality, and Relationship of Leucosolenia botryoides, Bowerbank, By H. Jamus-Cxarx, A.B., B.S., Professor of Natural History in the Agricultural College of Pennsylvania .... 250
XXXIV: Description of two new Gobioid Fishes from Sarawak. By Dr. A. Ginruen, F.B8., 7.2.8. (Plate X11)... 0.002 iae ees 264
XXXYV. Notes on the Remains of some Reptiles and Fishes from the Shales of the Northumberland Coal-field. By Atpany Han- Cock, 2:5, and DPHOMAS ATTHEY. «o.05 cap cc ee eee eet 266
XXXVI. Remarks on the Names age to the British Hemiptera Heteroptera. By J. W. Dovauas and JOHN SCOTT..........0.05 278
XXXVII. On the Muscular Anatomy of the Alligator. By the Rev. SamurLt Haveuton, M.D., F.R.S., Fellow of Trinity College, Walaa IP IRGS RS oes visa wh a's © stets o'e cient © Bere oo asalnase ine ern abn tee 282
XXXVIIL. On the peculiar Structure and Function of the Spicules of Hyalonema. By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S., V.P.Z.8., F.LS.,&c... 292 .
New Books :—Coleoptera Hesperidum, being an Enumeration of the Coleopterous Insects of the Cape Verde Archipelago, by T. Vernon Wollaston, M.A., PLS. — Naturhistorisk Tidsskrift
Journal of Natural History), edited by Prof. J. C. Schiddte, at
openhagen; third series, vols. iii. & iv. (1865-1867).—The Record of Zoological Literature, 1866. Volume III. Edited by Albert C. L. G. Giinther, MA., M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S. &¢... 295—305
Proceedings of the Dublin Natural-History Society
On the Gingee Squirrel of Sonnerat, by Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &e. ; On the Mode in which certain Rotatoria introduce food into their Mouths, gee Claparéde ; On the Habits of Volutes, by Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &c.; On Loxosoma Kefersteinii, a soft Bryozoan of the Bay of Naples, by E. Claparéde ; On new British Fishes, by Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &c.; Cetacean Animals in Museums; The late Professor Van der Hoeven ........ 309—312
NUMBER V.
XXXIX. Contributions toward the formation of a correct System of -Muscular Homologies. By ALEXANDER Maca.istER, M.D., L.R.C.S., L.K.Q.C.P., Demonstrator of Anatomy, Royal College of Surgeons, Ireland, one of the Honorary Secretaries of the Royal faeoloprcal Society of Ieplsnd se. . 3.0% lsctce eclnin atest w Alot Sune Checks 3138
XL. Descriptions of two new Species of Humming-birds. By GERNOT IB ss Te Lays ate foes einen a alten sia cimes CS 322
XLI. List of Coleoptera received from Old Calabar, on the West Coast of Africa. By ANDREW Murray, F.L.S. (Plate IX.) .... 328
XLII. On Ellipsordina, a new Genus of Foraminifera. By Gru- SEPPE SEGUENZA, Professor of Natural History in the Royal Lyceum,
CONTENTS. Vil
- Page Messina. With further Notes on its Structure and Affinities, by ene Br Any, 01S., F.G.S, | (Plate XI). <.,. aes das va ws 333 XLII. Description of a rare Indian Clausilia. By SyLvanus ATLA ong! 2 Os a era IE RAS PES rea 343
XLIV. Remarks on some Species of Oliva recently described by Mr. Frederick P. Marrat. By T. Granam Ponron, F.Z.S. ...... 344
XLV. Notes on the Remains of some Reptiles and Fishes from the Shales of the Northumberland Coal-field. By ArBany Hancock, F.LS., and Tomas Atruny, (Plates XIV., XV., XVL)........ 346
XLVI. On the Development of the Position of the Eyes in Pleu- ronectide. By Prof. J. C. Scuioprr. Communicated by C. A. By RNAP arattent ss audit cua eteietef eg i abe oy. th ng Cahn geek Ue eat 378
New Book :—The Birds of South Africa. A descriptive Catalogue of all the known Species occurring south of the 28th Parallel of South Latitude, by Edgar Leopold Layard, F.Z.S. &......... 383
Natica catenata (Philippi), by T. Graham Ponton ; Balatro calvus, a new Genus and Species of Rotatoria entirely destitute of Vibra- tile Cilia, by E. Claparéde ; Occurrence of Terebratula ( Wald- heimia) pseudo-jurensis ou in England, by J. F. Walker, B.A., F.G.S. &e.; Fossil Ivory ; On the Union of the Tympanic Bone with the Lower Jaw occurring in the Marsupials during Development, as a fresh proof of the agreement of this bone with the Os quadratum of the other classes of Vertebrata, by Prof. W. Peters; On the Tympanic Bone and Ossicles of the Ear in the Monotremata, in connexion with the question of the interpretation of the Quadrate Bone in Birds, by Prof.W.Peters; > _Leucodore calcarea, by E. Ray Lankester ; On the Growth of the Stem of Fontinalis antipyretica, by Prof. H. Leitgeb...... 385—392
NUMBER VI.
XLVI. On Balanus armatus, and a Hybrid between this Species and Balanus improvisus, var. assimilis, Darw. By Dr. Fritz MULurr. (ERR Me Nea iota ei a al ak Cratnr er soe persreeatareie wees aah ebtuiad was ea eae tea 393
XLVIII. Sixth Account of new Species of Snakes in the Collec- tion of the British Museum. By ALBERT GUNTHER, M.A., M.D., PD At. CE lated WME KVL Ug EM), oi aie vie aca cue ga 415
XLIX. On the Terrestrial Mollusca of Dominica and Grenada; with an Account of some new Species from Trinidad. By R. J.
Lucha Guepy Wie: .GES., 80.05. ne as we cs a nee ces 429 L. Carcinological Gleanings. No. III. By C. Spence Bate, Bisel Meeaberommen (io tert ee Da oat) crala ss aca) 9 ielcheuens nies ni gan aide, conse Ss 442
LI. On Eugereon Boeckingi and the Genealogy of the Arthropoda. Sig Dr: AN New ERIE rays gcse iain it 6° « Sig hese a celia BE i 4 lave 448
Vill CONTENTS.
-__ Page LIT. On some additional Species of the Genus Eutoxeres. By J. ED, BRIS BEC lees nsal ae 5 erie Flo MEE SP ais yk eles a eo 455 LIII. Additions to the Ichthyological Fauna of Zanzibar. By Dr. /JoU Engen: ig OM oo) s Se ek aA ey eS ee Shae ies ache Locke an 457 LIV. On the Species of Helicide found in Japan. By ARTHUR A@ARIS od LS! M555. sau Poe eda Rela eae oh se haere mia eee acs 459 LV. Observations on some proposed new Species of Oliva. By A, MEA MMEE ATE | ALANA NAL et ssta price e atatdala ora, ola tie chs ee eae aa 472
LVI. Diagnoses of some new Freshwater Fishes from Surinam and Brazil, in the Collection of the British Museum. By Dr. AR BUR PCCRUN TEED 5 (faiz dlahase fa 38 Sa dese acc ats'e leh cay tab ale 475
LVII. Notule Lichenologice. No. XXII. By the Rev. W. A. Lrr1cuTon, B,A., F.L.S.—Dr. Wm. Nylander on new British Lichens 482
Note on Hyalonema boreale, Lovén, by Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.8., &e.; Note on the Shell-structure of certain Naiades, by C. A. White, M.D.; Smelts breeding in an Aquarium; On the Formation of Coral Reefs, by Carl Semper... oi <a. 0% «ore i mains and ane 484—486
PLATES IN VOL. I.
PuaTe I, Structure of the Mouth in Sucking Crustacea. Ul. Voluta Thatcheri—Globiocephalus Grayi. Il. Structure of the Graptolitide. IV. Species of Habrodictyon. Vv
Vr bison flagellata. VII.
VIII. Autolytus prolifer. IX. Species of Lycus. X. Anatomy of the Alligator. XI. Lithodomous Annelids. / XII. New Gobioid Fishes. XIII. Ellipsoidina ellipsoides.
pee Remains of Reptiles and Fishes from the Shales of the XV. ON re a XVI. orthumberland Coal-field.
XVII. Simotes amabilis.—Hydrops callostictus.—Callophis japonicus. —Elaps Batesii. XVIII. Mimophis madagascariensis. XIX. New Reptiles. XX. Hybrid Balanus. XXI. New Crustacea.
THE ANNALS
MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.
[FOURTH SERIES.]
Me eiecassutccines per litora spargite muscum, Naiades, et circttm vitreos considite fontes: Pollice virgineo teneros hic carpite flores: Floribus et pictum, dive, replete canistrum. At vos, o Nymphe Craterides, ite sub undas; Ite, recurvato variata corallia trunco Vellite muscosis e rupibus, et mihi conchas Ferte, Dex pelagi, et pingui conchylio succo.”
NV. Parthenii Gianettasii Ecl. 1.
No.1. JANUARY 1868.
I.—On the Structure of the Mouth in Sucking Crustacea. By Prof. J. C. ScH16pTE*.
[Plate I.] Part I. CymMorHo.
1. The peculiar arrangement of the mouth in sucking Con- dylopoda being the result of a more or less complete fusion and metamorphosis of the organs that compose the mouth in those which bite their food, we may regard the interpre- tation of the elements of the sucking-apparatus as affording the severest test of our knowledge of the principles which govern the structure of the mouth in Articulata generally. The demands which this difficult task makes upon our know- ledge are so great that, in undertaking it, one cannot be long before discovering how little is gained in physiology, mor- phology, or natural systematic arrangement by even a very accurate knowledge of the structure of the various organs of the mouth in masticating Condylopoda alone. An analysis of these organs, which aims at nothing more than such a know- ledge, may supply material for artificial classification ; but a truly scientific solution of the problem before us requires more, viz., on the one hand, a true estimate of the mode of coopera-
* Translated from ‘ Naturhistorisk Tidsskrift,’ series 3. vol. iv. Copen- hagen, 1866, with two plates, from which the outlines on Pl. I. are copied.
Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. Ser.4. Voli. 1
2 Prof. J. C. Schiddte on the Structure of
tion of the organs of the mouth in masticating Condylopoda, founded on careful consideration of their anatomic connexion with one another, and, on the other hand, a definition of the morphological equivalents of all the different parts which shall prove its own correctness by its self-consistency. With less preparation than this it would be useless to attempt an interpretation of the structure of the mouth in sucking Condy- lopoda.
It is one of the imperishable merits of Savigny that he has solved this problem in all essential points with regard to Insects ; but with regard to Crustacea almost everything still remains to be done. In this class the investigation becomes complicated by the circumstance that the body is more or less united with the head, so that a varying number of its foremost pairs of limbs may be assimilated to the organs of the mouth in point of form and use. It will therefore be advan- tageous to begin our investigation with the order of Isopoda. On the one hand, this order occupies one of the highest steps to which the class of Crustacea upon the whole attains in the scale of development of the articulate type, whereby the com- parison with the mouth of insects is much facilitated ; whilst, on the other hand, it descends so low as to contain numerous parasitic species, and, therefore, is more likely than any other order to supply the key for the interpretation of the mouth in sucking Copepoda. How far this latter expectation will prove true cannot be shown more explicitly in this first paper; but the initiated will no doubt at once discern the application of the present analysis to lower forms.
2. Although it is sufficiently well known that at least some Cymothoe live upon liquid food, and although Rondelet, more than three centuries ago, has said, concerning one of these para- sites, that it sucks like a leech*, the question of the structure of their sucking-apparatus is nevertheless, in a scientific point of view, entirely virgin soil. It is true that Bosc believed that he observed in a Cymothoa a retractile sucker with a pair of small palpit; but Latreille declares that he could not find any such organ, and that he should consider it an anomaly in that
* “Piscibus ita heeret, ut eripi non possit, sugit ut hirudo, nec prius abscedit, quam tabidum et exsuccum piscem reddiderit, reperitur cervici mugilum, luporum, et saxatilium piscium affixus.” (Libr. de Pisc. mar. Lugd. 1554, p. 576, “De Pediculo marino.”) The woodcut at the head of Rondelet’s article on Pediculus marimus represents an <Anilocra, and approaches nearest to A. mediterranea, Leach.
3 Hist. Nat. des Crust. in Déterville’s small edition of Buffon, ii. p: 208. The figure shows that the species on which Bosc has founded his description of the genus was a Cymothoa sens. strict.; Briinnich’s “‘ Fiske- bjorn” (Entom. fig. 5), which he quotes, was more probably an Anziloera.
the Mouth in Sucking Crustacea. 3
class of animals if it existed, and he suggests that perhaps the jaws protrude during the suction in such a manner that they may have been taken for a sucker*. Milne-Edwards has not entered on the question, but merely given some figures of the different parts of the mouth separately in Afga, and a more comprehensive series of illustrations of the mouth of Cymothoaf, some of which represent the parts in their natural connexion; all these figures are useful and good as far as they go, but they do not go far enough. We might expect to find more detailed information in Heinrich Rathke’s anatomical essay on Aiga bicarinata; but he says that the organs of the mouth are adapted for gnawing, and upon the whole constructed as in Idothea. He adds, however, that the terminal part of the mandibles is very hard, almost cuneiform, and strongly bent downwards, and, further, that the orifice of the mouth is remarkably small in proportion to the size of the animal. These two last statements, which are quite correct in them- selves, do not seem easily reconcilable with the first, viz. that the mouth is adapted for gnawing, particularly as Rathke just before says that the mandibles adhere to the head to such an extent that their downward bent extremity cannot be capable of much movement{. We shall nevertheless see, by-and-by, that each of the authors named, Bosc, Latreille, and Rathke, may be said to be right, to a certain extent.
With regard to the structure of the mouth in masticating Isopoda, we possess more ample information ; and the descrip- tions and illustrations hitherto published, more especially those contained in Milne-Edwards’s excellent works, suffice to give a tolerably complete idea of it. If, however, this infor- mation is to serve us as a safe guide to the interpretation of the sucking-apparatus of Cymothoa and its related genera, it will nevertheless be expedient to reconsider the subject once more, and to place before ourselves a succinct analysis of the principal types which may be observed in the structure of the mouth in masticating Isopoda. We shall preface this analysis with a few observations of a more general bearing.
3. The limbs of Articulata are, in their origin, mere hollow cylindrical prolongations of the skin, which are converted into levers by the deposition of as many and as extensive layers of chitine as the muscles of the animal require for their support, and divided into as many separate pieces as the mode of loco- motion requires joints.
* Hist. Nat. des Crust. et des Ins. vii. p. 22. + Le Régne Animal (éd. accomp. de pls.), pl. 65-67. { Nov. Act. Acad. Cas. Leop.-Carol. Natur. Curiosor. t. xx. pt. 1, 1848, pp. 26 & 27. z 1?
4 Prof. J.C. Schiddte on the Structure of
These prolongations take rise from the sides only of the rings of the body—that is, from the pleure or lateral folds be- tween the dorsal and ventral plates; and in that case the pleurze may be covered to a greater or less extent by a de- posit of chitine forming a lateral plate, called the epimeron which affords support for the muscles which move the basal joint of the limb, the hip or coxa.
It is also from the pleure alone that the peculiar prolonga- tions arise which are in the service of respiration, either out- side the body as gills or branchie, or inside as trachee. From the dorsal and ventral arches of the rings, on the con- trary, no limbs ever take rise, although they often carry other more superficial formations (which may also be subservient to locomotion) for the purpose of supporting or fixing the body, such as groups of sharp granules, indentations, spines, retrac- tile warts, often with hooks disposed in circles, &c. To this last class belong the so-called ventral or false feet of many larve. The cerci of Insects with perfect metamorphosis (both of imagos and of larve) are merely transformed dorsal spines.
The head consists, as all the other rings of the body, of a dorsal arch, a ventral arch, and two side pieces. In this case, too, it is merely from the side pieces that the limbs take rise, namely the appendages of the mouth, and, besides, the eyes and antenne. But as the head, besides one or two pairs of an- tenne, possesses three pairs of limbs (appendages of the mouth), whilst none of the other rings have more than one pair, the lateral pieces or pleuree of the head (cheeks and temples) preponderate so greatly over the dorsal and ventral pieces, that they occupy the greater part of the skull, particu- larly behind and above, where so much space is required for the accommodation of the muscular and nervous systems; whilst the dorsal and ventral pieces lose so much the more in extent as they are here relieved from the office they perform in all the other rings (saving the last of all), viz. to afford sur- face of insertion for the muscles which move the next fol- lowing ring. The dorsal piece is therefore reduced to a plate above the mouth (the epistoma), from which separate pieces, viz. clypeus, labrum, labellum, are evolved in proportion as the mouth requires covering from above. ‘The ventral piece, on the contrary (hypostoma, or the sphenoid plate, as it may be called from its analogy to the os sphenoideum of vertebrata), enters into closer relations with the appendages of the mouth, as will be shown more in detail by-and-by ; from this, too, sepa- rate pieces are evolved in front, namely mentum and fulcrum Jabii, in proportion as the maxille and lingua with their muscles require support and cover from beneath.
the Mouth in Sucking Crustacea. 5)
_ The appendages of the mouth are consequently prolonga- tions of the pleure of the head. In many Crustacta more or less marked pleural folds may be observed, one fold for each ap- pendage, indicating that the head is composed of as many rings as it possesses appendages of the mouth.
The appendages of the mouth (oral limbs) consist typically of the following parts :—
(1) An articular fold near the base, the hinge (cardo). The corresponding articular fold at the base of the legs (or the limbs organized for locomotion) has been called “ trochantin.”’ In those insects where the coxe at their base are surrounded by sockets, the trochantins form the condyles of the coxe, being, as well as the latter, free of the epimeron.
(2) A stem (stipes), corresponding to the coxe of the locomo- tive limbs, which is developed in proportion to the require- ments of the lobes, its destination being to carry the latter and to accommodate the muscles by which they are moved.
(3) Three free lobes, at the end of the stem, of which the two innermost (malz) serve for subdividing and handling the food and are therefore modified in accordance with the na- ture of the food. The third and outer lobe is the continuation of the limb as such, and corresponds to those divisions of the locomotive limbs which follow the coxa. When it is elongated and jointed, or shaped as a leg, it is denominated palpus ; and its destination is then either to carry organs of sense, to pro- duce currents in the water about the mouth, to cleanse the organs of the mouth, to serve as instrument of prehension, or some other such function.
4, A fundamental difference between Insects and Crustacea is now to be observed, in the relations of the first pair of oral appendages to the side pieces of the skull.
In Crustacea the mandibles do not exceed that point of de- velopment which is attained by the other appendages of the mouth, and consist like these of hinge, stem, and lobes. Their flexors are also, as far as the head is not united with the body, attached to the hypostoma, and their movement is an oscillation, which has for its axis the whole exterior margin of the stem, and which sometimes is regulated by an imper- fect articulation at the exterior and posterior corner of the stem.
In Insects, on the contrary, both hinge and stem coalesce with the pleure of the head, and their proper muscles are not at all developed. The middle lobe alone remains, and articu- lates with the side pieces of the skull by an upper and a lower condyle, whilst its muscles fill a great portion of the side piece. The inner lobe is only very rarely developed, and is
6 Prof. J. C. Schiddte on the Structure of
then always fixed to the middle lobe. As there is no stem, there cannot be any mandibular palpus.
The development of the articulate archetype from the crus- tacean stage to the insect stage is here the same as that of the vertebrate archetype from fish to mammalia; and this analogy may also be traced in several other respects. In both these series of animals the cephalization is furthered by this, that the principal organ for the handling of the food gradually loses its form of limb by the coalescence of its basal divisions with the side pieces of the skull; in this way these latter gain additional space for accommodating the nervous system, whilst the movement of the jaws at the same time increases in power, because the muscles of the basal divisions of the limb disap- pear, and all the space on the increased side pieces of the skull is available for the muscles moving the remaining terminal paris of the jaws. The cephalization of the oral limbs of
ertebrata (the lower jaw) may be observed in different stages in reptiles and birds; the same is the case with the mandi- bles of Articulata. One of the intermediate stages, found in the lower Insects, with imperfect or no metamorphosis, and in sucking Insects, has recently been pointed out by Dr. Meinert in his paper on Campodee *.
5. In the hedriophthalmous or fourteen-footed Crustacea the first ring of the trunk T is connected with the skull, and as it ceases to be moveable its dorsal part (pronotum in Insects) disappears, whilst the ventral and lateral parts (prosternum and epimera prothoracica) still remain as separate pieces between the head and the second ring, because they carry a pair of limbs, the fore legs, which enter into the service of the mouth, and therefore assume the shape of maxille. These mouth- feet or maxillipeds have their coxe in proximity to each other in the middle, and correspond thus far to the labrum of Insects, that they afford a cover for the mouth from beneath, and assume a similar foliaceous and laciniated shape. Fabricius and his school therefore called them labium, as their morphologic inter- pretations were based only on the shape and use of the parts.
Next to the coalescence of the stems of the mandibles of Insects with the side pieces of the skull, there is no more im- portant point of difference between the structure of the mouth in Insects and in hedriophthalmous Crustacea than precisely this conformation of the maxillipeds simulating a labium. Covering as it does the mouth from beneath, the existence of this false labium renders unnecessary any other cover ; consequently
* Translated in Ann, & Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. vol. xx. p. 361. + In this paper the expressions “ trunk” and “ tail” stand for “ thorax” and “abdomen” in the terminology of Milne-Edwards and others.
the Mouth in Sucking Crustacea. e
no mentum is evolved from the sphenoid plate, and the tongue, rising from the bottom of the cavity of the mouth, appears im- mediately over the edge of the sphenoid plate; nor do the ordi- nary oral appendages of the third pair (second pair of maxille) enter into any combination with the tongue as they do in Insects, but remain separate, each on its own side of the sphenoid plate. The consequence is that the tongue occupies a far more advanced place among the organs of the mouth than in Insects. Whilst thus the first great peculiarity of the head in hedriophthalmous Crustacea (its being finished off underneath by labium-like maxillipeds) exercises a very marked influence on the struc- ture of the mouth, causing, so to say, a pressure from beneath, the second great feature distinguishing their head from that of Insects, viz. the free position of the mandibles with regard to the skull, produces a similar pressure from above, and both together result in imparting to the intervening organs of the mouth (the two pairs of maxille and the tongue) their cha- racteristic flattened and foliaceous appearance, and in placing the tongue in a very peculiar position to the mandibular lobes, determining its form once for all. The complete severance of the Insect head from the body, which entails its being finished off from beneath by the combination of the third pair of oral appendages, the mentum and the tongue, into a labium, finally its considerably increased thickness, which is caused by the coalescence of the stems of the mandibles with the side pieces of the head—all these circumstances cause the maxille and the tongue to be placed on a so much lower level than the mandi- bles (supposing these to lie horizontally), that the tongue re- tains free space to develope itself in accordance with manifold and various secondary considerations. But in the head of Crus- tacea the first pair of oral limbs, being entirely separate from and outside the side pieces of the head, are depressed into a lower level than that of the sphenoid plate, which lies very high; and consequently the tongue is placed above the mandibular lobes, and cannot possibly have any other than a deeply bifid shape, as it would otherwise close the aperture of the mouth.
6. The mouth of biting Isopoda presents three principal types, which agree in this, that the oral limbs are placed in a row slanting outwards and forwards on either side of the sphenoid plate, each independent of its neighbours.
The first type comprises Onisci, Aselli, Idothez, and Sphe- romata. It is essentially the same as the one we meet with in the majority of Amphipoda, that is, upon the whole in those Edriophthalmia which live near the shore or on the bottom of the sea, and feed upon carrion or vegetable food, gnaw wood, attack fishing-nets, &e.
8 - Prof. J.C. Schiddte on the Structure of
The mandibles have two lobes. The outer lobe is continued into a slender prehensile part, which is split into two or more branches ; and these latter are again divided into digitiform teeth ; at the base it possesses a large grinding-tooth of vary- ing shape and armature. The inner lobe is very short, more or less subdivided into smaller lobes and fringed, generally mem- branaceous, sometimes partially or wholly chitinized in one mandible and membranaceous in the other. The stem is more or less developed according to whether it has to carry a palpus or not. The first pair of maxille have two slender lobes, both moveable, particularly the inner one; this latter carries on its apex a number (generally four) of cylindrical, pointed, soft, hairy appendages, whilst the apex of the outer lobe is armed with a number of sometimes exceedingly sharply pointed, sometimes perfectly blunt, sometimes spinulous thorns. The second pair of maxillz have from one to three lobes, of which at least the two outer ones are moveable, the outermost being sometimes palpiform.
As an example of this type, which, moreover, is the best known of the three, we may take a little Spheroma which is very common along the coast of Denmark, but does not seem to have been sufficiently well described as yet ; perhaps it is identical with Oniscus globator, Pallas (Spic. Zool. fase. ix. p- 70, pl. 4. fig. 18). The prehensile part of the mandible is split into two branches, each with three to four digitiform teeth, which fit in between those of the mandible on the oppo- site side (Pl. I. fig. 1,m). The grinding-tooth is grooved and surrounded by a fence of spines. The inner lobe is small, soft, with pointed digitiform lobes, and articulates with the underside of the outer lobe in a depression between the pre- hensile part and the grinder. The stem of the mandible is short ; its outer part contains the muscles of the palpus, whilst its own flexors are inserted in its inner section. ‘The palpus is rather short and thick, but free. The stem of the first pair of maxille is divided longitudinally by a groove into two sec- tions containing the muscles of the two lobes; the inner lobe (fig. 1, x) has four cylindrical, pointed, soft, hairy, membrana- ceous smaller lobes, whilst the terminal spines of the outer maxillary lobe are broadly truncate, some of the inner spines bearing spinule on their inner side. The second pair of maxille (fig. 1,2*) possess three short lobes, of which the outer one forms a foliaceous biarticulate palpus.
7. The second type is characteristic of Cirolane; and as illustrative examples we may take Cirolana borealis, Lilljeb., from the North Sea and the Kattegat, and a pretty little active species ornamented with stars of black pigment, which
the Mouth in Sucking Crustacea. 9
occurs not unfrequently in the Sound and along the north coast of Zealand. It was already known to Slabber, and was described some years ago by Van Beneden (‘ Rech. sur les Crustacés de Belgique,” Mém. d. Acad. Belge, xxxii. p. 88, t. 15) as Slabberina agata, but is doubtless the same species that Leach described as Eurydice pulchra. Van Beneden re- fers it to Idotheze.
The mandibles are destitute of grinders; but their prehen- sile part is, on the contrary, extraordinarily large, shaped like a flat cup, the outline being almost quadrangular, the outer corner pointed, the whole inner edge finely sharpened, hard as glass, undulato-dentate, the inner corner drawn out into a long dagger-like peg. ‘The inner lobe is fixed closely under the outer lobe, large, membranaceous, divided into two lobules, of which the foremost is entire and covered with sete in Ciro- lana, but digitilobate in Hurydice ; whilst the posterior lobule in both genera is cultelliform, with a close row of pointed thorns along the inner margin, which gives to the lobule the appearance of a tenon-saw. ‘The stem of the mandible is long, the palpus slender, and, when not used, placed in a groove round the large labrum and the small clypeus, with the last joint slung round the root of the posterior antenna. The first pair of maxille possess two lobes coalescing with the stem; the inner lobe is much abbreviated and has three cylindrical slender append- ages, which in Cirolana are verticillato-spinulous towards the apex, and furnished with a hard thorn-shaped terminal joint, but which in Eurydice are soft, pointed, and hairy; the outer lobe is also rather short, particularly in Cirolana, somewhat arched inwards (fig.3,), powerful, the apex armed with a bundle of long, exceedingly hard, and pointed thorns, groups of similar thorns occurring all along the inner margin, which, in Hurydice, are much elongated and in part spinulous on the inner side. The second pair of maxille (fig. 3, 2*) are small, their inner lobe very short, with feather-like sete and hairy membranaceous digitiform appendages; the middle lobe and palpus are represented by a pair of uniform pointed leaflets. The maxillipeds (fig. 8, px) have oval hinges, small stem, rudimentary lobes, and fully developed, slender, flat palpus. The forehead and clypeus are, in Cirolana, trapezoid, flat, in Eurydice vaulted, the frontal cone protruding between the first pair of antenne (fig. 3.a,f).
Cirolane represent, no doubt, the highest development of the Crustacean type amongst Isopoda. The outer lobes of their mandibles are built exactly on the same plan as the car- nassial teeth of mammalia. They are furnished with pegs to be driven into the body. of the victim, one from either side,
10 Prof. J. C. Schiddte on the Structure of
and to distend gradually the piece which lies between them, until it is cut through by the cutting edges which glide clipping
ast each other. In harmony with this structure of the mouth is the slender form of the body, the thin antenne, and the well- developed swimming-feet ; and it cannot be doubted, therefore, that Cirolane are purely carnivorous. The testimony of dif- ferent authors goes in the same direction. Thus we find in Strém’s physical and topographical description of the district of Séndmér, in Norway, a description of a “ Fish-Bear,” which must be a Crrolana (C. borealis in all probability), and which, he says, ‘‘ creeps into the fishes through the anus and eats the flesh of the fish from the inside, so that, if it only has time, it may eat the whole of the fish.” The author of this paper asked Professor Kroyer, the celebrated and experienced con- noisseur of Crustacea and Fishes, whether he remembered any fact confirming the conclusions as to the mode of living of Ciro- lanze which are suggested by the structure of their mouth; and Professor Kroyer then related that once, near the shores of Nor- way, not far from Throndhjem, he caught a large codfish which teemed with Ctrolana borealis. 'The latter had eaten out such large cavities in the flesh that there was little left of the fish except skin and bones. In the hurry to secure this rich harvest Professor Kréyer tried to help himself by keeping some of the parasites in his closed hand, but they bit him so ferociously that he was obliged to let them go at once.
8. The third type is that of Serolides, of which Serol’s Orbig- nyana, M.-E., may serve as an example. The stem of the mandibles (fig.2,m) forms a very large, flat, oblique, quadrangle placed in a slanting position, and is evidently almost exclu- sively destined to give room for the insertion of the flexors, as the palpus rises from the exterior and posterior corners. The outer lobe has a similar shape, but is somewhat pinched off from the stem in the place where the large labrum begins to cover it in front; there is no grinder, and the prehensile part is thick and slightly spoon-shaped, the apex broadly truncate, with thick rounded edge ; the inner margins of the mandibular lobes on the right and left sides meet each other accurately, but do not cross so as to cover each other. The inner lobe is small, divided into two lobules, which are attached to the outer lobe close under its prehensile part. On the right mandible both lobules are very small, soft, bipartite ; but on the left mandible the foremost lobule is much increased in size, thickly chitinized, and resembles the prehensile part of the outer lobe by its clumsy, rounded transverse edge. The mandibular palpus is long, slender, the two first jomts fittmg into a shallow groove run- ning along the outer margin of the stem and continued between
the Mouth in Sucking Crustacea. 11
the clypeus and the base of the posterior antennzy, so that the small terminal joint projects between the antenne. Both pairs of maxillz are small, completely covered by the large and flat maxillipeds. The first pair of maxille exhibit only one narrow lobe (the middle lobe), which is armed at its apex with a few fine spines. The second pair of maxille have three small, narrow, and inarticulate lobules, of which the middle one and the external one or palpus are moveable. The cardo of the maxillipeds (fig. 2, pw) is very large, transversely placed, and divided by membranaceous seams into several plates; the stem is small and short, but has a large foliaceous prolongation on the outer side, whereby the base of the stem becomes as broad as the anterior margin of the cardo, so as to produce the impression that the cardo here lies behind the stem, whereas it really lies, as usual, obliquely outside it; the short adnate lobes form in connexion with the stem a thick crest on the upperside, which is made to fit alongside a ridge, which on either side marks the outline of the broad sphenoid plate. This latter is at the base carinate and at the apex deeply bifid. The palpus is short, thick, biarticulate.
If, now, the clippimg and tearing mouth and active appear- ance of Cirolanee forcibly suggests the idea of a small shark, it is difficult to contemplate the Serolides without thinking of a little ray or skate. ‘That they live near the bottom is suffi- ciently evident from their broad, short, slightly vaulted general form, the crested and carinated dark-coloured back, the smooth white under surtace, the sickle-shaped imbricate epimera, the flat broad head which is closely titted into the first segment of the body, the salient eyes placed on the upper surface of the head, the position of the mouth on the under surface, and the limi- ted capability of swimming. Besides, their mandibles, though powerful, are not arranged either for clipping, grinding, or mas- ticating, but only for pinching or squeezing and biting through a hard surface; the maxilhpeds cover up the other, very small, appendages of the mouth; and after them follow two pairs of prehensile limbs of the same kind as those of Mantis, Nepa, and Squilla. It cannot, therefore, be doubted that Sero- lides live upon prey, and that this consists of small rather slow animals living near the bottom, probably mostly such as have firm integuments. The hypothesis suggested by Milne-Edwards (Hist. Nat. des Crustacés, 111. 231), that they attach themselves to fishes, is contradicted by the very feature of their structure to which he refers in support of it. Their flat mouth would be powerless against the skin of a fish, even if the cup-like shape of the anterior parts of the body did not prevent the mouth from reaching the skin. Furthermore, the first pair of
12 Prof. J. C. Schiédte on the Structure of
body-limbs are not hooked, but long prehensile organs, arti- culating with the body in such a manner that they can reach far forward in order to catch objects, and then, folded together, keep that which has been caught closely under the mandibles ; the second pair of legs, which have the same shape but in a smaller size, are to be considered merely auxiliary organs.
9. These three types may consequently be surveyed accord- ing to the subjoined scheme :—
Instrumenta cibaria mordentia, libera, serie obliqua utrinque disposita. Hypostoma breve. Orificium oris amplum. Mandibule malis binis instructe, exteriore fixa.
A. Mala exterior mandibularum mola instructa striata, mucronulata spinosave.
a. Os manducatorium. Mala exterior mandibularum ramosa, digitate spi- nosa, prensoria. Maxille priores malis binis, exteriore subrecta, apice spinulosa. Onisci, Aselli, Idothece, Spheromata.
B. Mandibule mola carentes.
b. Os sectorium. Mala exterior mandibularum depressa, quadrata, margine interiore acutissimo, valide dentato. Maxille priores malis binis, exteriore incurva, multispinosa. Cirolane.
c. Os morsorium. Mala exterior mandibularum crassa, fornicata ; _margine crasso, obtuso, edentulo. Maxille priores mala unica, apice spinulosa.
Serolides.
10. Thus prepared, we may with greater confidence enter upon an examination of the structure of the oral sucking-ap- paratus in Cymothoe. As examples we may take two often- described species, Aga psora, L., and Cymothoa estrum, auct., which represent the two types round which all the other Cy- mothoe gather themselves with regard to the construction of their sucking-apparatus. For the sake of comparison [ also take into account the Anilocra Leachii, Kréyer, a new spe- cies from the West Indies, which approaches very near to A. laticauda, M.-E. (Hist. Nat. des Crust. i. 259. 6), besides a small species nearly related to Cymothoa sens. str., which was collected by Professor Kréyer, in Feb. 1840, on a fish caught
the Mouth in Sucking Crustacea. 13
in the Plata River, but of which the specific name was not determined. As this Isopod is apparently undescribed, and rather remarkable, I here insert its chief characteristics.
I propose to call this species Artystone trysibia. It re- minds one somewhat both of Urozeuctes and of Olencira, but is easily distinguished from the other genera of the family by the striking contrast between the first six pairs of legs, which are short and hooked, and the seventh pair, which reach to the extremity of the tail and are slender, compressed, crawl- ing legs with small, almost rudimentary, straight claw. The trunk is slightly vaulted, broadly elliptic, the fore part some- what twisted to the left, the hind part twisted still more to the right. The head is small, resembling that of Cymothoa estrum in all essential points; and the same holds good with regard to the antenne and the organs of the mouth. The an- terior corners of the first ring scarcely reach the eyes; the greatest breadth of the animal is between the fourth and the fifth ring, where it is about half the greatest length. All the rings of the trunk have a couple of small, triangular, irregular, lateral folds over the epimera, which latter are luniform, rounded before and behind, extending on the first four rings as far as about one-half of the lateral margin of the dorsal plate, on the fifth reaching almost the whole length of the margin, and on the sixth and seventh somewhat beyond the dorsal shield. The cox are even, without protuberance, the hooked legs small, almost of equal length, their claws very fine. The first five rings of the tail are very short, of uni- form length, somewhat increasing in breadth behind, the first three covered by the seventh ring of the trunk; the last caudal ring is gradually narrowed from the base, obliquely triangular, of about equal length and breadth, rather high-arched, with rounded apex; the last pair of caudal legs reach not quite to the apex of the ring; the branches are of equal size, elongated elliptic, soft, naked. The total length is 13 millims. The colour is white; on the trunk very minute points of black pigment are observable on the side folds of the dorsal shields, on the last three pairs of epimera, and across the dorsal shields along their posterior margin; vestiges of similar points are seen in a streak along the tail and on the base of the last joint. The only specimen found is a female with ripe eggs; the opercula are as in Cymothoa estrum.
This parasite seems to indicate even a more direct transition to the Bopyri than the twisted Livonece.
11. In Cymothoe the organs of the mouth are adapted for sucking in the following manner. The labrum is elongated, transversely curved so as to form a semicylindrical duct, which
14 Prof. J.C. Schiodte on the Structure of
is turned perpendicularly downwards and on the sides joins the maxillary lobes of the second pair, which also are converted into a semicylindrical duct, and of which the ends are expanded into a sort of lip; the palpi of the maxillipeds sometimes also enter into the combination. Thus a short soft tube is produced, which, by means of fringes, warts, and small hooks round the aperture, is specially adapted for closing tightly against a surface. Inside this tube we find foremost a pair of instruments designed for stinging, clipping, cutting, gnawing, or scratching, and which are the transformed mandibles; and behind them, again, a pair of fine saws or rasps are seen, by means of which the wound made by the mandibles may be further extended, lacerated, or deepened; this second set of instruments is formed by the first pair of maxille.
As regards the mandibles, the conversion is effected in the following way :—the stem is elongated, its sliding articulation at the base disappears, and it becomes almost immoveable ; the inner lobe disappears entirely ; the outer lobe is twisted abruptly downwards and forwards, separating itself from the stem by a short neck, in which there is an imperfect membranaceous arti- culation, and penetrates at once, just at the bend, into the inte- rior of the sucking-tube, slipping in from the side between the labrum and the expanded ends of the second pair of maxille; the lower part of this lobe, which consequently is inside the suck- ing-tube, assumes the shape either of a triangular, pointed, at the apex sharp and hooked scratching-instrument (4Zga), or of a thin, triangular, pointed knife-blade (Cymothoa). Although the stem of the mandible, on account of its limited mobility, only requires small space for its own muscles, it never- theless retains a considerable size, as it must accommodate not only the muscles of the palpus, but also those of the moveable lobe, of which, however, the muscles also combine with those belonging to the second pair of maxille. Upon the whole, it may be observed that the masticating muscles of Crustacea are, as 1s also the case in fishes, combined and coalescent with each other to that degree that it becomes difficult to distin- guish between their different portions, and all the organs of the mouth are really moved collectively to a certain extent. The maxille of the first pair are reduced to slender stiff stylets, surrounded and hidden by those of the second pair, of which the lobes in front meet in the middle; the stylet is formed by the stem and the moveable middle lobe, which on the apex carries a number of pointed hooked thorns.
A more detailed description of the mouth m Aga and Cy- mothoa will serve to place this account in a clearer light.
12. When the mouth of d4fga is examined from beneath,
the Mouth in Sucking Crustacea. 15
the maxillipeds at once arrest the attention. The cardo (Pl. I. fig. 46, c) is expanded outwards and forwards into a large triangular plate, which covers the root of the second pair of maxillz. ‘The stem is very large, elongated, quadrangular (fig. 4 6, s), its underside slightly vaulted; but the lateral or outer portion is boldly arched upwards, so as to embrace the maxille of the second pair; and the upper surface of the stem has near the inner margin a thick longitudinal crest fitting so accurately into a depression on the corresponding side of the middle ridge of the sphenoid plate between this ridge and the maxillz of the second pair, that the stem by these means is kept quite firmly in its position. On account of this crest, the stem appears rather thick when detached and viewed from the side of the inner margin, which latter is quite straight and even, so as to fit in exactly with the correspond- ing margin of the maxilliped on the opposite side, to which it hes close through the whole of its length.
The five-jointed palpus of the macillipeds (p, fig. 4 6) is of about the same length as the stem. The first joint is very short, and is placed transversely in front of the fore end of the stem, whilst the four following joints form a bluntly pointed, inwardly curved, cup-shaped leaf, which rests on one edge, so that it inclines a little inwards. The upper (and outer) even edge of the leaf fits first into a narrow groove on the inner edge of the stem of the mandible, and then passes round the mandible and lays itself into the bend between the mandibular stem and lobe, whilst the front edge is curved inwards and embraces the corresponding side of the labrum. On the in- ferior margin of the palpus, near the end of the second joint, a couple of small soft hooks are implanted ; and a greater number of such are distributed along the margin and along the outer side of the following joints. They do not, however, appear as hooks, except when viewed from the side, and particularly when the palpus is pressed flat ; but from beneath or from the side, when the palpus is in its natural shape, they are seen fore-shortened, and then appear as a row of short thorns along the margin of the third joint, and as a lump of warts on each side of the labrum.
In this manner the two leaves formed by the palpi, placed on edge and bending towards each other, embracing some other parts of the mouth, constitute the sides of the sucking- tube. Nevertheless a slit remains between them; but this 1s filled up at the bottom by the two very short, conic, com- pressed, brevisetose lobes of the maxillipeds, and, further, in front by the inner lobes of the second pair of maxille, which will afterwards be described.
16 Prof. J. C. Schiddte on the Structure of
In front the oral tube is closed by the labrum, which hangs perpendicularly from the clypeus; this latter is itself in a perpendicular position, elongated and arched in front. The labrum is of semicircular outline, and edged by a thick, soft, membranaceous fringe, which is dotted over with small pointed warts,
When the maxillipeds are removed, we observe the short ~ prosternum, and in front of it the sphenoid plate, on which an elevated ridge is conspicuous along its middle line, which becomes gradually thinner towards the apex, besides the sockets of the cardo and stem of the maxillipeds, and, finally, the second pair of maxille. As we have stated already, a depres- sion is observed on either side between the latter and the middle ridge of the sphenoid plate, which is filled up by the longitudinal crest on the upper surface of the stems of the maxillipeds. The consequence is that the stems of the second pair of maxille are entirely covered in from beneath by the stems and the base of the palpi of the maxillipeds. The stems of the second pair of maxille present the shape of elon- gated, inverted-pyritorm, thin and uneven saucers, somewhat narrowedand flattened towards theirfore ends, which meet across the middle ridge of the sphenoid plate, just inside and above the second joint of the palpi of the maxillipeds. Their con- cavity is, of course, turned upwards towards the under surface of the skull; and in the space thus enclosed the maxille of the first pair are lodged, with sufficient spare room to insure their free movement. The maxillary lobes of the second pair are small, thin, of rounded outline, at the apex and along the inner margin armed with some small, rather soft, hooked spines. The rounded outline of the lobes, however, only ap- pears when they are unfolded; for in their natural position their appearance is very different. The inner lobe is then observed (x*, fig. 46) in the slit between the palpi of the maxillipeds, at the inner posterior corner of the second joint ; but it is twisted round, so that it is seen foreshortened, and the hooks above mentioned seem in consequence to form al- together but one thick thorn. The whole anterior margin of the outer lobe, on the contrary, is turned back like a collar over the anterior margin of the second joint of the maxillipeds. The part played by the second pair of maxille in the con- struction of the sucking-apparatus is consequently this, that their stems are excavated into sheaths for the styliform first pair of maxille, and their lobes fill up the remaining gaps in the sucking-tube, of which the opening becomes a closed circle formed by different elements which can slide over each other and are armed with small hooks.
the Mouth in Sucking Crustacea. 17
It remains to examine the structure of the bottom of the sucking-tube—that is, the region about the real mouth of the animal. We then find that the sphenoid plate reaches as far forward as the apex of the second joint of the palpi of the maxillipeds; here the ridge, already mentioned as running along the middle of the plate in question, bifurcates into two soft branches, lying close together, which coalesce with the lobes of the tongue, forming their thick inner margins, and presenting, with the open slit between them, the exact figure of a buttonhole. The two round, naked, soft, and slightly folded lobes of the tongue, which resemble flat cushions, fill entirely the small space between the sphenoid plate behind, the palpi of the maxillipeds on the sides, and the labrum in front, whilst their abruptly attenuated, short and conic ends are turned downwards and slung round the fore parts of the mandibles. The sucking-tube would thus be completely closed at the bottom, if the just-mentioned buttonhole-like slit between the lobes of the tongue did not remain; and this slit must there- fore be considered the real sucking-orifice.
We have thus traced the ways in which all the necessary conditions for the hooking on and loosening, the contraction and extension, abbreviation and prolongation of the mouth-tube are supplied and combined into one collective whole, and we can now pretty well understand how this animal is enabled to suck. The mouth-tube itself is so constructed that it may serve as a sucking-cup; further in we meet the tongue with its button- hole and nothing more, therefore, is required than swallow- movements of sufficient strength to cause a liquid to ascend into the cesophagus. It is indeed most probable that the an- terior, pear-shaped part of the intestine, concerning which Rathke (/.c. p. 80-31, t. 11. figs. 16 & 17 a) expresses himself with some uncertainty, is of great importance in the act of sucking. It still remains to consider a little more closely the instruments by means of which the source of liquid is made to flow. .
The stem of the mandibles (s, fig. 4c) forms a very large, flat cone, with somewhat sinuated outline, slanting forwards and inwards, bearing the palpus near its posterior and exterior corner, and lying uncovered between the maxilliped and the labrum, as far as the place where it penetrates into the mouth- tube from the side. At this point it is immoveably adnate, and affords thus a firm lateral support for the mouth-tube ; but immediately inside it is abruptly contracted and twisted half round with a downward bend; and here the membrana- ceous articulation.of the stem with the mandibular lobe is
Ann. & Mag. N. Mist. Ser. 4. Vol. 1. 2
18 Prof. J.C. Schiddte on the Structure of
situated; this latter consequently projects downwards inside the mouth-tube, just behind the labrum, and beneath the corresponding lobe of the tongue, which forms the bottom of the mouth-tube. The lobe of the mandible (m, fig. 4c) is elongated triangular, gradually acuminated, with convex back and concave front, the sharp lateral edges meeting at the sharp-pointed hooked apex. The muscles of the lobe fill the greater part of the stem in front of the insertion of the palpus. This arrangement, in connexion with the corresponding great length of the stem, indicates great power and perseverance of movement, and explains how these lobes, in spite of their inconsiderable size, may be used with great effect. Their shape and position enables the animal to sink them into its victim, one from either side, in slanting converging directions, and then, by drawing them back simultaneously with sufficient strength, to tear out the piece which lies between them. That they are destined to work against each other and to be drawn back together is plain from the circumstance that their points are not quite uniform, the left hook being somewhat more bent than the right one, and at the same time a little twisted to the side, so that it can take hold round the other.
The sawing-styles, or maxille of the first pair, consist each of a shorter stem and a longer lobe, which joins the former evenly allround. They are hard, smooth, slightly flattened, and bent inwards, so that their ends project downwards in the mouth- tube, behind the mandibular lobes, under the tongue, and on either side of the buttonhole-shaped sucking-slit. The seven hooked spines at their apex are so placed as to form a curved group; and it is therefore difficult to make out their form and number except when the lobe is pressed. These sawing-styles are evidently intended to act as auxiliary instruments, for deepening, increasing, and lacerating the wounds made by the mandibular lobes.
The long and slender mandibular palpi (fig. 4a) are, when at rest, placed firmly against the head in a groove on the underside of the skull, which runs at a little distance from the stem forwards between the forehead and the posterior antenne, round the basal joint of which their pointed and sickle-shaped terminal joint coils itself. The palpi, being inserted so far be- hind and to the side that they have considerable room for play, are probably destined for cleaning the mouth-tube with the brush at their apex, and to comb away the fishy slime from the marginal hooks by means of the fine comb of spines im- planted in the outer margin of the terminal joint.
The structure of the mouth. in Aga may therefore be de- scribed in the following terms :—
the Mouth in Sucking Crustacea. 19 Aga.
Os haustellatum.
Haustellum adversum clypeo labroque, aversum malis poste- rioribus palpisque pedum maxillarium confectum, malas mandibulares maxillaresque priores rasorias involvens.
Clypeus fornicatus:pendulus.
Labrum semicirculatum, pendulum, fornicatum, margine membranaceo, fimbriate verruculoso.
Mandibule stipite amplo, falcato, basi palpigero, mala inte- riore nulla. Mala exterior sub labrum oblique inflexa, mobilis, in orificium haustelli deorsum eminens, triquetra, acuminata, intra concaviuscula, apice extremo hamato, acuto. Palpus gracilis, triarticulatus, articulo intermedio producto, terminali brevi, falcato, barbato, pectinato, basin antenne secunde amplectente.
Maxille priores stiliformes, mala interiore et palpo nullis. Mala exterior stipiti contigua, in orificium haustelli deor- sum eminens, fasciculo armata terminali hamorum raso- riorum.
Maxille posteriores apice contigue, maxillas priores obvol- ventes, stipite lato, fornicato, palpo nullo. Male dis- crete, breves, rotundate, margine minute hamulate, ori- fictum haustelli post claudentes, supra marginem inte- riorem palporum pedum maxillarium reflexe.
Pedes maxillares maxillas includentes, cardine maximo, obli- quo, laminato, triangulo, mala minutissima, conica. St- pites contigui, recti, subquadrati, fornicati, supra carinati, hypostoma valde elongatum medio carinatum utrinque explentes. Palpi quinquearticulati, latissimi, foliace1, fornicati, infra minute hamulati, labia lateralia haustelli formantes.
Lingua rotundata, mollis, pulvinata, nuda, fissa lobis apice lingulatis, introrsum arcte contiguis, crasse marginatis, rimam suctoriam includentibus.
13. Having now described the structure of the mouth in 4figa as minutely as seemed necessary in order to explain its composition and mode of action, we may, in respect of Cymo- thoa (fig. 6), content ourselves with a comparison between the two, pointing out and interpreting the differences.
The oral tube is built up of the same elements; but they enter into its composition in different proportions ; and an im- portant difference in this respect is to be noticed between the two sexes.
In the male the cardo of the maxillipeds is a large, trans-
versely oval but very irregular plate. The stem is flat, ob- Qe
20 Prof. J. C. Schiddte on the Structure of
long, narrower in the fore part, with a small protuberance on the outer margin, which touches the stem of the mandibles, and is somewhat vaulted, but does not by any means cover in the stems of the second pair of maxilla so completely as is the case in Afga. The stems of the two maxillipeds meet, as in 4vga, with their even inner margins, and likewise fit in between the middle ridge of the sphenoid plate and the second pair of maxille, by means of a crest on their upper surface ; but this is considerably narrower than in 4ga. The palpus is small, pointed, biarticulate, slightly curved inwards, with a row of small hooked spines on the inner or lower edge of the terminal joint. The upper or outer margin of the palpus is also in Cymothoa arranged to fit into a groove in the stem of the mandible, and forms the side margins of the mouth-tube.
In the female, on the contrary, the maxillipeds are con- verted into a pair of thin lamelle, which are almost entirely covered from beneath by the first pair of plates of the egg-bag, and which do not reach so far that the palpi can form part of the mouth-tube; the cardo, besides, has a foliaceous inward- turned prolongation ; and, as the inner margins of the stems, moreover, are not quite rectilinear, the stems do not meet ac- curately along the middle line of the skull, and it is only on a short piece that they fit in above between the ridge of the sphenoid plate and the second pair of maxille. Hach of the stems, besides, expands on the outer side into a large, thin, rounded leaf, which reaches forward a considerable distance beyond the small palpus, of which only the last joint has a few thorns at the apex.
In both sexes the maxillipeds are without lobes: the inner corner of the stems certainly presents a little eminence, which is particularly easily observed in the male; but it lacks sete, and can consequently hardly be looked upon as a lobe.
Of course this great sexual difference in the structure of the mouth entails a corresponding difference in the part taken by the maxille of the second pair in the composition of the mouth- tube.
The peculiarity of the second pair of maxille in Cymothoa consists in this, that the lobes are neither separate lobules as in 4fga, nor turned back in the shape of collars, but they coalesce with one another, are soft, swelling, and by slight longitudinal grooves divided into small oval cushions (three on each maxilla), which together form the posterior part of the orifice of the mouth-tube. The outermost cushion has on the outside and at the apex a scattered number of small pointed warts; the intermediate and innermost cushions have no warts except on the margins, but have besides in their fore
the Mouth in Sucking Crustacea. 21
part some few hooks—the middle one three, the innermost only one.
In the male Cymothoa the sides of the mouth-tube are, as we have stated, supplied by the maxilliped-palps, which reach as far as the labrum; and the maxillary lobes of the second pair have therefore here, as in Aga, no other duty than to fill up the slit between the maxilliped-palps, though certainly this opening is proportionally larger in Cymothoa, the palpi in question being smaller and the lobes of the maxil- lipeds wanting. But in the female Cymothoa, where the maxillipeds do not enter into the construction of the mouth- tube, this devolves entirely on the second pair of maxille (x*, fig.6 a; the maxillipeds are removed). ‘These are there- fore much broader than in the male; their stems meet in much greater extent, namely with the whole of their front halves, and the lobes form together a large curved lip, which, on the sides, joins the labrum.
Although this conversion of the maxillary lobes of the second pair into a kind of lip in all essential points makes up for the non-participation of the maxillipeds in the construc- tion of the mouth-tube in the female, and their limited parti- cipation in the male, this expedient would, nevertheless, not be sufficient if the labrum in Cymothoa were not larger than in Aga. But whilst in this latter genus the labrum occupies only one-third of the circumference of the mouth-tube, it sup- plies in Cymothoa quite one-half. It is consequently much broader, much more considerably arched from the top down- wards, so that it becomes like an inverted cup when the mouth- tube is contracted; a small undulation is then also observed in the middle of the margin, which latter is furnished with numerous minute warts. But when the mouth-tube is dis- tended and examined from beneath, the margin appears undu- lated or crenate.
From all this it appears that the mouth-tube is, upon the whole, softer and less powerfully armed in Cymothoa than in Afga: instead of the almost fringe-like covering of warts on the labrum, the considerable bundle of hooked spines on the palpi of the maxillipeds, and the row of spines on the turned- over margin of the maxillary lobe of the second pair in Aga, we find in Cymothoa merely the very minute warts on the very edge of the labrum and on the cushion-like lobes of the second pair of maxille, and the very short row of hooked spines on the two innermost cushions of these lobes and on the margin of the terminal joint of the maxilliped-palpi in the male. But this weaker armature of the mouth in Cymothoa of course cor-
22 Prof. J. C. Schiddte on the Structure of
responds with the far greater development of the hooked limbs
in that genus, to which we shall allude further on.
The mandibular palpi (m, fig. 6a), on the contrary, enter into far closer connexion with the mouth-tube in Cymothoa than in Aga. Instead of being slender and furnished with a brush of bristles and a comb of spines as in Aga, they are short, thick, and conic, and they are inserted on the stem in such a manner that they become directed straight forward. They are accordingly applied to a different purpose, namely to the support of the mouth-tube, round which they le closely, meeting in front of it and embracing it between them. In Anilocra (fig. 5) this destination of the mandibular palpi is still more apparent in their form, the joints of the palpi being so accurately fitted to the space between the antenne and the labrum that they surround the mouth-tube as a kind of padding.
Excepting that the sawing-styles formed by the first pair of maxille (fig. 6 6) are less powerfully armed than in Aiga, the difference in the inner machinery is confined to the structure of the mandibular lobes (m, fig. 6 6), which are thin, triangular, pointed lobules, with a sharp inner edge, and are doubtless used not merely for stinging, but also for the purpose of clipping, as they are capable of being crossed like the blades of a pair of Scissors.
The formula for Cymothoa will consequently be the follow- ing :—
Cymothoa.
Os haustellatum.
Haustellum adversum clypeo labroque, aversum in foemina malis posterioribus, in mare malis posterioribus palpisque pedum maxillarium confectum, malas mandibulares punc- torias maxillaresque priores rasorias involvens.
Clypeus fornicatus, pendulus.
Labrum amplum, semicirculatum, pendulum, fornicatum, mar- gine minute verruculoso.
Mandibule stipite quadrato, fixo, apice palpigero, mala inte- riore nulla. Mala exterior sub labrum oblique inflexa, mobilis, in orificium haustelli deorsum eminens, triangula, compressa, acuminata, cultriformis. Palpus labrum utrin- que amplectens, triarticulatus, conicus, nudus; articulis sensim decrescentibus.
Maxille priores stiliformes, mala interiore et palpo nullis. Mala exterior stipiti contigua, in orificium haustelli deor- sum eminens, fasciculo armata terminali hamorum raso- riorum.
the Mouth in Sucking Crustacea. 23
Maaille posteriores fere tote contigue, maxillas priores ob- volventes, stipite lato fornicato, in foemina latissimo, palpo nullo. Male concrete, membranacee, pulvinate, minute hamulatz, fornicate, in mare marginem interiorem palpo- rum pedum maxillarium fulcientes, in foemina orificium haustelli post claudentes.
Pedes maxillares maxillas tegentes, laminati, cardine maximo iregulari, mala nulla. Séepdtes planiusculi, in foemina ex- trorsum dilatate foliacei, in mare contigwi, hypostoma breviusculum, medio carinatum utrinque explentes. Palpi biarticulati, brevissimi, conici, depressi, apice minute ha- mulati, in mare labia lateralia haustelli formantes.
Lingua rotundata, mollis, pulvinata, nuda, fissa, lobis intror- sum arcte contiguis, crasse marginatis, rimam suctoriam includentibus.
14. The fulness of the vegetative life in fishes expresses itself through the rich variety and size of their external para- sites in comparison with the higher vertebrates. Amongst these parasites the Cymothoe occupy a prominent place. Their stomach (Rathke, /.c. tab. vi. figs. 16 & 175) is so large that when distended it almost fills the five last segments of the trunk (corresponding to the abdomen in Insects). Its contents are by the action of spirit of wine converted into a tough mass, which may be cut with a knife, and under the microscope shows a plentiful admixture of epithelial cells, in ga some- times also of blood-corpuscles. This lump when dried is easily taken out whole, particularly in ga, and presents then a per- fect cast of the interior of the stomach, in the shape of an oval bean, with ashining smooth surface; along the under surface a groove is observed, indicating the place where the stomach has pressed against the ventral cord of the nervous system ; the colour is a light or dark amber, in 4ga often dark brownish red. ‘These animals have of course been well known to the cod-fishing inhabitants of the north from time immemorial ; and the singular fact just alluded to has given rise to curious superstitions amongst the people, and not less curious mistakes on the part of the naturalists of former days. Whilst the fishermen regarded this “stone” as a powerful talisman, se- curing to its possessor, when rightly used, the fulfilment of his wishes, the medical men recommended it as an infallible remedy against sea-sickness amongst other things ; and whilst some naturalists thought that it took the place of the internal organs altogether, others thought it to be the ovary, and O. Fabricius (Fauna Greenl. p. 250, Oniscus psora) thought that it surrounded the intestine.
24 Prof. J.C. Schiédte on the Mouth of Sucking Crustacea.
15. When leaving the pouch the young of Cymothoa wstrum have a sharp-edged forehead, well developed, oval, prominent black eyes, slender, setiform antenne, the posterior pair so long that they reach as far as the middle of the tail, and slender limbs with long claws, which are hooked only at the point, and which, on those three pairs of legs which are directed forwards, assume the form of saws, owing to a row of powerful teeth on the underside. ‘The tail is entirely free, not much shorter than the trunk, conical, its rmgs being very freely moveable. Its limbs possess long downy swimming-bristles ; the last pair are almost as long as the first five rings of the tail, and point straight backwards, their branches being elongated, narrow, with long downy swimming-hairs at the end. The seventh ie of limbs are wanting as in other newborn young of
ae
ecording to the classification hitherto current, these young Crustacea would rather be allied to Cirolana than to Cymothoa ; but the facts demonstrated in the foregoing investigation needed scarcely this addition in order to prove that here, too, in our attempts at system we go astray in darkness when we neglect the light afforded by the structure of the mouth. Ifthe young of Cymothoa, in the form of body, antenne, and legs, more reminds one of Cirolana than of the adult Cymothoa, and if an Aiga has less external similarity to Cymothoa than to Ciro- lana, then all these similarities belong entirely to the class of biological modifications, and are without any typical character at all. Itis by marks of distinction of the same kind that Bopyri have been separated from the other Isopoda; but as their mouth is of the same construction as in Cymothoa, only far more reduced, they ought to be united with Cymothoa, Adiga, and their related genera into one natural family—Cymothoe. Not even in the characters of distinction now in use are transitions wanting; for there exist twisted species (not yet described) of the family of Cymothozx, according to the definition of the family hitherto accepted, but which lack the last pair of caudal limbs. Upon the whole we may observe a striking parallelism between this present series of parasites on the one side and Siphonostomata on the other side, although it is not so extensive nor descends so low as the latter, at least accord- ing to our present knowledge. -d4ga corresponds to Caligus, Cymothoa to Lernanthropus, Bopyrus to Chondracanthus. It is the greater or smaller degree of locomotion which decides the shape of the frontal margin. In those parasites which are continually fixed it is blunted; in those which move about it is sharpened by the addition of the basal joint of the first pair of antenne. In Aga these antenne are still tolerably free, but
Dr. Th. M. Fries on new Species of Lichens. 25
joined by a notch and ledge to the second pair of antenne, and, together with the latter, jomed to the eye-margins, whereby a kind of imperfect sucking-cup is formed. In Caligini, on the other hand, the basal joint of the first pair of antenne coalesces with the sucking-cup, now developing a pair of independent small suckers (Caligus), and now forming the so-called lamina frontalis. A vestige of the true front plate is, however, some- times to be observed, namely the scar indicating the place of insertion of the detached organ of fixation.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE I.
Fig. 1. Head of Spheroma balticum, n., from beneath.
Fg. 2a. Head of Serolis Orbignyana, M.-E., from beneath : 0, sockets of first pair of legs.
Fig. 2b, Prosternum and sphenoid plate of the same, from beneath, with the lingua and the maxillee of the first and second pairs on the right side: 0, sockets of maxillipeds.
Fig. 38. Head of Cirolana borealis, Lilljeb., from beneath.
Fig. 4a, Head of Aga psora, L., from beneath.
Fig. 46. The maxillipeds of the same in their connexion with other parts: c, cardo of maxillipeds; s, stem of ditto; p, palpus of ditto.
Fig.4c, Right mandible of the same, seen from the inner side: s, the stem; m, the lobe; p, the palp.
Fig. 5. Head of Anilocra Leachii, Ky., from beneath.
Fig. 6a. Head of Cymothoa estrum, E., 2, from beneath. The maxilli-
eds are removed and the sucking-orifice distended : 0, sockets of the maxillipeds.
Fig. 66. Right mandible of the same, from the inner side: s, stem; m, lobe; p, palpus.
In all the figures, where no other interpretation is given, the following is the signification of the letters :—/f, forehead; a, antennz of the first pair; a*, antennze of the second pair; c, clypeus; /, labrum; /*, lingua ; m, mandibles; x, first pair of maxille; 2x*, second pair of maxille; px, maxillipeds; A, sphenoid plate; s, prosternum; s*, mesosternum,
IL.—WNotule Lichenologice. No. XIX. By the Rev. W. A. Lercuron, B.A., F.L.S.
As Dr. Tu. M. Fries’s ‘ Lichenes Spitzbergenses’ will in all probability be in the hands of few persons in this country, and as there is a possibility that some of his new species may - occur in the northernmost portions of Great Britain, we here extract his descriptions of them.
1. Lecanora coriacea, Th. M. Fr.
Crusta crassa, contigua, torulosa |. verrucosa, luteo-albida (1. in roseum vergente), subnitida. IK imbuta primum fulves- cente, dein sanguinea; apotheciis non visis.
26 Dr. Th. M. Fries on new Species of Lichens.
Supra muscos et terram nudam.
Spermogonia numerosa, quorum ostiola nigricantia habitum Pertusarie cujusdam huic tribuunt. Spermatia acicularia, recta, sterigmatibus simplicibus adfixa.
2. Gyrophora discolor, Th. M. Fr.
Thallo crasso, rigido, usque ad 2-3 unc. diam. lato, superne costis rugisque elevatis valde ineequali scrobiculatoque, toto areolato-rimuloso 1. verruculoso, cinereo, subtus aterrimo, fuligineo-pulverulento (rarius centro |]. margine pallidiore) ; apotheciis elevatis, simplicibus, margine cinctis. Affinitatem cum G. anthracina ostendit, precipue cum B,
tessellata. CaCl nunc distinctius, nunc obsoletius stratum gonidiale (vel hujus partes sparsas) rubrefacit, qui color mox disparet. Partes apothecii interne congenerum similes ; spore oblongee. Jodo dilute cerulescit, dein sordide decoloratur.
3. Lecidea conjungens, Th. M. Fr.
Thallo bullato-verrucoso, sordide cinereo; apotheciis adnatis, majusculis (magnit. L. vesicularis), planis, constanter te- nuiter marginatis, demum varie flexuosis auriculatisque, nigris, nudis; hypothecio fusco-nigro; paraphysibus fili- formibus, laxe cohzerentibus, apice fuligineo-capitatis ; sporis in ascis clavatis, 8S, utrinque obtusis, preterea valde va- riantibus, nunc oblongis |. ellipsoideis, diblastis, nunc elon- gatis 1. subcylindricis, tetrablastis.
Ad rupes calcareas.
A L, vesiculari sporis, paraphysibus &c. differt ; a L. fusz- spora, Hepp., thallo, apothecio, paraphysibus &c. Gelatina hymenea precedente cerulescentia levi vinose rubet.
4, Lecidea collodea, Th. M. Fr.
Crusta tenui, subgelatinosa, cinerascente; apotheciis adnatis, cartilagineis, convexis, dein subglobosis |. varie tuberculatis, siccis nigricantibus, humidis obscure cinnamomeis, quasi pellucidis, nitidulis; hypothecio incolorato ; paraphysibus concretis, subhyalinis, apice fuscis 1. fuscidulis; sporis in ascis anguste clavatis 8S, oblongis, simplicibus.
Ad saxa. ’ Apotheciorum insigni habitu facile distincta species. Iodo circa ascos dilute cerulescit, preeterea sordide lutescit.
5. Lecidea pullulans, Th. M. Fr.
Crusta tenui, rimosa, cinerascente; apotheciis minutissimis, numerosis, primo urceolatis, dein planis leviterque convexis,
Dr. Th. M. Fries on new Species of Lichens. 27
margine tenui demum evanescente, nigris; hypothecio in- colorato ; paraphysibus apicem versus cerulescente-smarag- dulis, filamenta in gelatina copiosa referentibus; sporis in ascis clavatis 8™s, oblongis.
Ad rupes micaceas.
Habitus characteresque cogunt hanc pro distincta habere specie; inter species antea descriptas nullam mvenimus, ad quam. referri possit. Stratum medullare iodo non vel passim dilutissime violascit, hymenium vero ceruleo tingitur colore.
6. Lecidea scrobiculata, Th. M. Fr.
Crusta crassa (usque ad 5 millim.) varie rimosa, verrucis vulgo tenuiter rimulosis, sordide argillacea ; apotheciis varie flexuosis tuberculatisque primo planiusculis et marginatis, dein subglobosis immarginatisque; sporis globosis 1. glo- boso-ellipsoideis.
Supra rupes.
Habitu a L. elata, Scheer. adeo recedit, ut primo obtutu pro distincta specie haberes ; accuratius examinate nexum per- spicere tamen crediderimus eum L. elata, ad quam sese habet, ut L. (Sporostatia) tenuirimata (quacum mixta occurrit) ad Ee (Sp.) Mori tonem. 'Thalli verrucis elevatis interdum adnascuntur apothecia, ut quasi pedicellata appareant. Partes apothecii interne cum L. elate congruunt, preterquam quod spore vulgo sunt globose. Spermatia "acicularia recta 1. leviter curvata.
7. Lecidea impavida, Th. M. Fr.
Thallo minute verrucoso, nigricante vel obscure badio, sub- nitido; hypothallo nigro; apotheciis minutis persistenter subplanis et margine elevato cinctis, nigris, nudis ; hypo- thecio obscure fusco; paraphysibus omnino concer ets, indis- tinctis, apice fuscis; ascis inflato-clavatis; sporis 8", ellipsoideis 1. globoso-ellipsoideis. Gelatina hymenea pree- cedente cerulescentia levi (circa ascos intensiore) fulves- cente.
Ad rupes.
Tam externis quam internis notis facillime distincta species. Apud nos hactenus falso omnino pro L. Mosigit habita est. dea thallus non tingitur, preterquam quod membrane goni- diorum plus minus distincte violascunt.
8. Lecidea associata, Th. M. Fr.
Parasitica, thallo proprio nullo; apotheciis minutis, primo in- natis prorumpentibusque, concavis, dein adpressis, planis,
28 Dr. Th. M. Fries on new Species of Lichens. ;
margine obsoleto 1. pertenui, disco ruguloso, atro, nudo ; hypothecio incolorato; paraphysibus validiusculis, articu- latis, gelatina copiosa ‘imbutis, apice fuscescentibus ; sporis in ascis clavato-cylindricis, 8", una serie dispositis, breviter ellipsoideis 1. subglobosis. Gelatina hymenea iodo vix mutata.
Supra thallum Lecanore tartaree. Statione, apotheciis, ascis sporisque ab omnibus facillime dignota. Ad fungos facillime rejicienda.
9. Lecidea (Sporostatia) tenuirimata, Th. M. Fr.
Thallo pallidiore (quam L. Morto), ferrugineo- |. flavo-cinereo, protothallo nigro inter areolas distincto ; areolis tenuissime rimulosis.
Ad rupes.
sapien diversissimum atque valde insignem pre se fert, neque dubitaremus pro distincta specie eam enuntiare, nisi in ambitu radiante passim adessent areole levigate. Nordens- kjold legit specimen has formas aperte jungens. Partes interne non discrepant.
10. Lecidea (Buellia) vilis, Th. M. Fr.
Crusta tenuissima, cinerascente, 1, nulla; apotheciis tenuibus, mediocribus, persistenter planis et margine tenui cinctis, ni- gris,nudis; hypothecio incolorato; varaphysibus capillaribus, conglutinatis, fuligineo-capitatis ; sporis in ascis clavatis, nis, diblastis, plus minus late ellipsoideis, utrinque ob- tusis, fusco-nigricantibus.
Ad saxa.
Habitu ignobilis, facile pretervisa. Apotheciis planis, sporis majoribus, hypothecio incolorato a L. punctata Fk. var. stigmatea diversa; a L. leptocline, cui maxime affinis, omni- busque aliis Buelliis nobis cognitis hypothecio diversa. Apo- thecia nunc sparsa, nunc conferta mutuaque pressione vario modo angulosa. Jodo hymenio addito, primum cerulescit, dein sordide decoloratur, ascis rubentibus; pars eorum supe- rior tamen haud raro cxruleum servat colorem.
11. Arthonia (Coniangium) excentrica, 'Th. M. Fr.
Thallo crasso, e verrucis contexto verruculosis |. farinaceo- dehiscentibus, albo ; apotheciis minutis, adnatis, primo orbi- cularibus leviterque convexis, dein nonnihil angulosis et planiusculis, scabriusculis, nigricantibus; hypothecio rufi- dulo-fusco; ascis pyriformibus ; paraphysibus gelatinoso- confluxis, sordide fuscidulis, apice fuligineis; sporis 8's,
Dr. Th. M. Fries on new Species of Lichens. 29
cuneato-oblongis, utrinque obtusis, diblastis, hyalinis. Ge- latina hymenea iodo intense rubente.
Supra muscos.
Crusta crassa, que re vera non aliena videtur, facile dis- tincta species ; apotheciorum interna structura excepto para- physium colore, cum A, circinata Th. Fr. satis congruit.
12. Verrucaria extrema, Th. M. Fr.
Crusta crassa, inequali, rimoso-areolata, areolis e granulis minutis congestis contextis, fuliginea |. obscure fusca 1. nigricante . apotheciis semi- |, subliberis, majoribus interdum leviter papillatis 1. umbilicatis ; perithecio nigro; sporis in ascis subcylindrico-clavatis, Suis, oblongis I. fusiformibus.
In saxis graniticis.
Optime distincta species, thallum si respicis, Buelliam conio- pem sat referens; obiter inspecta Stauwrothelen Clopimam in memoriam quoque revocat. Gonidia parva. In perithecio sub microscopio vulgo observatur magna guttarum oleosarum copia. Jodo gelatina hymenea dilute rubet, spore fulvescunt.
13. Verrucaria rejecta, Th. M. Fr.
Crusta tenui, effusa, 1, maculas minutas formante, mequali, e verrucis minutissimis contexta, sordide nigricante 1, cinereo- fusca; hypothallo sordide cinereo- nigricante ; apotheciis minutis, globosis, semiliberis 1. adnatis; perithecio nigro ;
sporis in ascis inflato-clavatis, 8", ellipsoideis.
In rupibus calcareis.
Tnviti, sane hance novam speciem, habitu ignobilem, propo- nimus ; frustra autem cum aliqua hactenus nobis cognita con- jungere conati sumus. Crusta vulgo formatur ex hypothallo ambitu nonnihil radiante et granulis minutis dispersis, ob- scurius coloratis; ubi paulo crassior, insuper tenuiter rimosa conspicitur. Gelatina hymenea iodo vinose rubet.
14. Verrucaria (Arthopyrenia) conspurcans, Th. M. Fr.
Parasitica, thallo proprio nullo; apotheciis minutis, puncti-
formibus, adnatis, conico- elobosis, atris ; ascis ventricosis,
paraphysibus _gelatinoso-diffluxis ; sporis 8", cuneatis,
utrinque obtusis, diblastis, incoloratis.
Supra squamas L. (Psore) rubiformis. Todo ascorum contentus fulvescit, ceterum non mutatur.
30 Prof. F. M‘Coy on Phascolomys setosus and P. niger.
ITI.—Note on the Phascolomys setosus (Gray) and P. niger (Gould). By Prof. M‘Coy.
THE interesting paper on the species of Phascolomys by Dr. Murie in the ‘ Zoological Proceedings’ for December 1865 leaves the Phascolomys setosus (Gray) i doubt as a probable variety of the common brown P. platyrhinus. Ihave lately obtained a good skin, from South Australia, agreeing with the original external characters of Dr. Gray’s P. setosus, and I am glad to find that an examination of the skull shows it to be awell-marked and distinct species. I subjoin an ac-
curate outline (natural
size) of the nasal bones,
which may be compared
with the figures of the
three other species in Dr.
Murie’s paper. It will be
seen that, in the great
width and flatness of the
posterior margin of the
nasals, the P. setosus ap-
proaches the P. latifrons,
being intermediate be-
tween it and the common
P. platyrhinus, but differ-
ing from both in the broad
double curve of each side
forming a salient angle a
little in front of the mid- Outline (nat. size) of the nasal bones dle of each side. of P. setosus (Gray).
I also procured lately an adult male and female and young of the P. niger of Gould from Yea, in this colony. The female and young were quite black; and the skulls of each of them showed a small semicircular lobe projecting outwards from about the anterior third of each outer margin of the nasal bones (not to be confounded with the more posterior wide an- gulation produced by the double concave curvature of the outer margins of P. setosus); so that, taken with the difference of © colour, I at first thought it possible the species might be really distinct from the P. platyrhinus. But on carefully comparing all the bones of the skeleton, I could find no other difference ; and on getting the skeleton of the male specimen prepared, I found that its skull agreed with the ordinary type of the P. platyrhinus in its nasal bones, although the individual was the mate of the female referred to. ‘The colour was not so perfect a black as in the female and young, but had a brownish tinge ;
Dr. C. Collingwood on Gigantic Sea-Anemones. 31
so that the skull, skeleton, and external characters of the fur showed P. niger to be only a variety of P. platyrhinus, as Dr. Murie has already correctly surmised would be found to be the case. I finally have just had a typical brown ordinary P. platyrhinus prepared for the Melbourne Museum, and have found in it the small lateral lobes on the outer margin of the anterior third of the nasals, which I first noticed in the so- called P. niger, and of which there was no trace in five skulls previously prepared ; so that there can no longer be the least doubt of the black and brown individuals being only varieties of one species. With the P. setosus, we have thus four well- marked living wombats, and at least two fossil extinct ones. While referring to Dr. Murie’s paper above quoted, I may take the opportunity to remark, in reply to his observation that, in my description of P. latifrons published by Mr. Gould, I did not lay sufficient stress on the peculiarity of the softness of the fur, that I have there contrasted it with the coarse hair of the common wombat in the strongest manner, by comparing it to the fur of the English wild rabbit in this respect. Melbourne, Oct. 26, 1867.
IV.—WNote on the Existence of Gigantic Sea-Anemones in the China Sea, containing within them quasi-parasitic Fish. By Dr. C. CoLLincwoop.
THE most remarkable circumstance which I met with when wading upon a submerged reef in the China Sea was the dis- covery of some Actiniz of enormous size, and of habits no less novel than striking. I observed in a shallow spot a beautiful large convoluted mass, of a deep blue colour, which, situated as 1t was in the midst of magnificent corals of every colour of the rainbow, I supposed also to be a coral; but its singular aspect induced me to feel it, when the peculiar tenacious touch of a sea-anemone made me rapidly withdraw my hand, to which adhered some shreds of its blue tentacles. I then per- ceived that it was an immense Actinia, which when expanded measured fully 2 feet in diameter. The tentacles were small, simple, and very numerous, of a deep blue colour; and the margin of the tentacular ridge was broad and rounded, and folded in thick convolutions concealing the entrance to the digestive cavity.
While I was standing breast-high in the water, admiring this splendid specimen, I noticed a very beautiful little fish, which hovered in the water close by, and nearly over, the Anemone. The little fish was 6 inches long, the head bright
oe Dr. C. Collingwood on Gigantic Sea-Anemones.
orange, and the body vertically banded with broad rings of opaque white and orange alternately, three bands of each. As the fish remained stationary, and did not appear to be alarmed at my movements, I made ineffectual attempts to catch him; he always eluded my efforts, not darting away, however, as I expected he would, but always returning to the same spot. Wandering about in search of shells and animals, I returned from time to time to the great Anemone, and each time I found the fish there, in spite of all my disturbance of it. This singular persistence of the fish in keeping to the same spot, and to the close vicinity of the great Anemone, aroused in me strong suspicions of the existence of some connexion between them.
These suspicions were subsequently verified; for on the reefs of Pulo Pappan, near the island of Labuan, I met with more than one specimen of this gigantic Actinia, and the fish, so unmistakeable in its appearance when once seen, again in its neighbourhood. Raking about with a stick in the body of the Anemone, I by degrees dislodged six fishes of the same species, and of various sizes, from the cavity of the zoophyte ; and this time, being provided with a hand net, I had no diffi- culty in capturing them all. Thus the connexion existing between the fish and the Anemone was demonstrated, though what is the nature and object of that connexion remains to be proved.
There are at least two species of these Anemone-inhabiting fish ; and a second species of the same genus differs from that just described in having black and cream-coloured vertical bands, instead of orange and white. Such a fish I have seen, evidently closely related to the first described, in the pos- session of Mr. Hugh Low, of Labuan, who in times past had made many excursions to the reefs, and had become acquainted with this fact. My. Low had it then living in a tub which did duty as an aquarium, having obtained it some months before from the body of what was probably a second species of fish-sheltering Anemone. The fish was remarkably lively and knowing, and lived in good health in the tub for several months—a proof that the connexion between these animals, whatever its nature, is not absolutely essential, for the fish at least.
It has long been known that there is a Holothuria (H. ana- nas) which harbours a parasitic fish. The Holothuria and its fish are figured in the ‘ Voyage of the Astrolabe ;’ and such a Holothuria inhabits the reefs about Labuan ; but its fish bears no resemblance to those I have described, not indeed belong- ing to the same piscine family.
M. C. Blondeau on the Irritability of Plants. 33
But the saddest part remains to be told. The six fishes having been secured as above, I made no drawing or descrip- tion of them, but placed them in spirits and transmitted them home with other specimens. From some fault probably in the spirits, these fishes were totally destroyed before arriving in England, although, with the exception of some other fishes, the rest of the specimens were in tolerable order. I trust, however, that, as I know precisely where they are to be found, I shall be able to procure new specimens from the same spot.
V.—On the Irritability of Plants. By C. BLonpEAu*.
WE have undertaken, in the course of the present year, a great number of experiments upon the iritability of plants; and these have shown us that the faculty possessed by certain plants, especially the Sensitive Plant, of executing apparently voluntary movements, may be suspended by various agents, such as ether, chloroform, carbonic oxide, protoxide of nitro- gen, and essence of turpentine, all of which, as is well known, act upon the nervous system of animals.
Amongst these experiments there is one which seems to us to possess sufficient interest to induce us to submit it to the judgment of the Academy of Sciences. This consists in sub- mitting the Sensitive Plant (Jfimosa pudica) tothe action of the galvanic current.
In performing our experiments we selected four fully deve- loped Sensitive Plants, the sensibility of which was so great that the least contact, such as the friction of a fly’s wing, was sufficient to cause their leaflets to close, and even to depress the petiole of the leaf along the stem. After placing the pots in which these plants had been grown upon an insulating sup- port formed by a plate of glass, we attached to the two extre- mities of the stem in each of them a small copper wire for the purpose of passing the current generated by a single Bunsen’s couple. Atter waiting for a few moments, the plant reopened its leaflets, and the petiole was raised; the current was then passed, care being taken to avoid any movement which could agitate the plant. Under these conditions we observed no effect, the leaflets did not fold up, the petioles did not lower themselves, and the plant seemed to be insensible to the action of electricity.
We then varied the experiment: instead of employing the direct current of the pile, we made use of the induction-
* Translated from the ‘Comptes Rendus,’ August 12, 1867, pp. 304-306. Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol.i. 3
34 M.C. Blondeau on the Irritability of Plants.
current produced by means of a very small Ruhmkorff’s coil. The results were then quite different. Scarcely had the cur- rent begun to pass, when the leaflets were seen to apply them- selves to one another, then the petioles were depressed along the stem, and the movement was rapidly propagated from one end of the plant to the other. According to this result, the plant is sensitive to electrical disturbances, and behaves in this respect exactly like animals.
We wished to ascertain whether the subjection of the plant to electricity for a longer or shorter time would produce in it phenomena worthy of notice; and with this view we caused the induction-current to act upon three of our Sensitive Plants during different periods of time. The first plant submitted to experiment received for five minutes the disturbances produced by the Ruhmkorff’s coil, and at the end of this time it was left to itself. For more than a quarter of an hour the plant re- mained in the state of prostration to which it had been reduced by the electrical action; but by degrees the leaflets opened, and the stalks raised themselves again, and in about an hour the plant had regained its original position, and did not appear to have suffered in the least by the shocks to which it had been subjected.
A second Sensitive Plant was subjected to the same treat- ment, but continued for ten minutes. At the end of this time the induction-current which traversed the stem was suspended and the plant left to itself. The Sensitive Plant remained in the state of prostration to which it had been brought by the action of the current for more than an hour, and it was only after this lapse of time that the leaflets began to open and the petioles to elevate themselves. his movement moreover took
lace more slowly and laboriously than in the preceding case.
vidently the plant had been fatigued ; for it did not return to its original position until two hours and a half after the current had ceased to traverse it.
Our third Sensitive Plant was subjected to the action of the induced current for five-and-twenty minutes, and then the plant was left to itself. In this case we waited in vain for it to resume its original position: the prolonged electrical action had been sufficient to destroy all irritability, and even to cause the plant to perish; for on the following day we found our Sensitive Plant withered, and even blackened as if it had been struck by lightning.
Our fourth Sensitive Plant was reserved for an experiment which has proved to us that electrical disturbance acts upon plants in the same way as upon animals.
We know that man, as well as the other animals, when sub-
Dr. J. E. Gray on the Species of Hyrax. BS
jected to the anesthetic action of ether, becomes insensible to the disturbances produced by induction-currents, even when these are very powerful. We wished to see whether this would be the case with the Sensitive Plant.
For this purpose we placed our plant under a bell-glass with two tubulatures, through which penetrated the copper wires serving to pass the induction current through the plant. A few drops of ether were poured into the interior of the bell- glass, and in a short time the plant had undergone the anes- thetic effects of the liquid; for, when shaken, it no longer closed its leaflets or manifested any sensibility. In this state we subjected it to the action of the mduction-current ; and then it gave no sign of sensibility: the petioles remained straight and the leaflets continued open.
These fresh experiments harmonize with all those which have been made upon this subject, and furnish an argument in favour of the opinion of those who think that the movements observed in these plants are effected by the intermediation of organs analogous to those possessed by animals.
VI.—Revision of the Species of Hyrax, founded on the Speci- mens in the British Museum. By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S., VAS.
THE species of the Hyraces are well marked both externally and anatomically ; but there is great confusion as to the names that have been given to them in the systematic catalogues.
Prosper Alpinus, in his list of animals of Egypt and Arabia, indicated a species of Hyrax under the name of Agnus filiorwm Israél, which Shaw regarded as a large Jerboa; but Bruce corrected this error in his account of the Ashkoko.
Pallas described and figured the Cape species under the name of Cavia capensis, and Buffon as the Marmotte du Cap. It is well known to naturalists as Hyrax capensis.
Bruce notices a Hyrax under the name of Ashkoko, which he described as coloured like a wild rabbit, with scattered black bristles and white beneath. This well agrees with a Hyrax, now found in Abyssinia, Dongola, and Upper Egypt, which is in the British Museum. Bruce states that the animal is also found in Mount Lebanon and Arabia Petrea.
Schreber, who only knew the animal from Bruce’s figure and description, applied to it the scientific name of Hyrax syriacus. The Asiatic species is very like the African ; but I believe it is distinct ; and in that case Schreber’s name is
Q%
36 Dr. J. E. Gray on the Species of Hyrax.
not applicable to the African animal to which Bruce gave the name of Ashkoko (‘coloured like a wild rabbit, and white beneath’’), and which has a yellow dorsal streak. Capt. Harris, who collected animals in Abyssinia, sent home several specimens of a large blackish Hyrax having a large black dorsal spot and grey beneath, which he says is called Ashkoko by the natives; but it can scarcely be the Ashkoko of Bruce, as it does not agree with either his description or figure: perhaps this name is generic. Hyrazx is also called Geke in Abyssinia, according to Salt.
Mr. Tristram informs us that the Hyrax in Palestine and Sinai is called Weber, and Thofun in Southern Arabia. Bruce evidently confounds these Hyraces together as one species.
Several zoologists have doubted whether the Ashkoko of Bruce was distinct from Hyrax capensis: no one can doubt the fact who compares the two. But the large blackish animal which is also found in Abyssinia, and called by the same name as Bruce applies to his species, is so like the H. capensis that it would be doubtful if it is a distinct species, if there were not such a difference in the skull. Hemprich and Ehren- berg regard it as distinct, and call it H. habessinicus.
Hemprich and Ehrenberg, in the ‘Symbole Physice,’ de- scribed and characterized by their colours and osteological characters four species of Hyrax, viz.:—1. H. capensis, 2. H. syriacus vel sinaiticus, 3. H. habessinicus, 4. H. ruficeps vel dongolicus. 'They figure three; for the dark animal figured with H. syriacus represents a young Hyrax habessinicus.
There is no specimen in the British Museum that has a red head, although Prof. Ehrenberg called one of his species H. ruficeps; but I think that probably he gave that name to the species which we received from Dr. Riippell as H. abyssinicus, and which I believe to be the Ashkoko of Bruce.
There are specimens of four distinct species in the British Museum that have a more or less distinct yellow dorsal streak ; and there is another, discovered by Dr.Welwitsch. Four came from Africa, and one from Arabia in Asia. They differ from each other in the texture and the general colour of the fur and of the hairs of which it is composed. Most probably two of these are the species with yellow dorsal spots, characterized by Hemprich and Ehrenberg, viz. Hyrax syriacus or stnaiticus of Asia, and H. ruficeps vel dongolicus of Africa.
Two of these species have rather harsh rigid hairs.
Three specimens of the first were sent from Upper Egypt by Mr. James Burton. They are larger in size and much paler in colour than the other species of the group, and very slightly punctulated with black. They have the dorsal
Dr. J. E. Gray on the Species of Hyrax. 37
streak comparatively slightly marked and of a pale colour, and the fur is short and close. There is a single young specimen, received from a French collector as from Senegal, very like those from Egypt, showing that this species has a very wide distribution in Africa.
The second, of an iron-grey colour, was brought from Angola by Dr. Welwitsch. Dr. Peters names it H. arboreus ; but it is quite distinct from that species. I have called it H. Welwitschit.
The other three species have very soft close fur; and they differ from one another in the colour of the fur and of the se- parate hairs. The first, which I believe is the Ashkoko of Bruce, is very like a wild rabbit in general colour, and is white below; the hairs have a black subterminal band and a yellow tip, which gives the fur a minutely and closely punctulated appearance. The second is somewhat like the former, and also said to come from Abyssinia; but the fur is pale yellow grey, minutely and slightly varied with black hairs, but not punctulated, and the hairs have no subterminal band; and the underside is yellowish. The third, which is the species found in Palestine and Arabia, is of a nearly uniform reddish-yellow colour, and has longer and softer hairs of a nearly uniform colour.
Sir Andrew Smith, in the Trans. Linn. Soc., described a South African species under the name of H. arboreus; and Mr. Fraser described a West African species under that of H. dorsalis. Both these species are distinguished by having a white dorsal spot. The type specimen described by Mr. Fraser, and a young specimen received from Sir Andrew Smith of his H. arboreus, are in the British Museum.
M. Blainville and other French zoologists have confounded the H. dorsalis of West Africa with the H. arboreus of the Cape, which are most distinct species, as proved by the types in the British Museum. Dr. Peters described the H. arboreus as found on the coast of Mozambique and also in the interior iy Pete.
The animals with the white dorsal spot have a very different skull and teeth from the other species which have a black or yellow dorsal spot. Sir A. Smith observed the peculiarity of the teeth when he described H. arboreus.
The colour-spots on the back consist of the hair that covers the situation of a dorsal gland on the vertebral line, about halfway between the shoulders and the pelvis.
In the species which have the hair yellow or white the streak is generally narrow and linear; in the species in which the spot is black, it is generally broad and diffused. In some
38 Dr. J. E. Gray on the Species of Hyrax.
specimens of H. stinaiticus the yellow streak is deeper and brighter-coloured than in others. It appears more marked in the younger and smaller specimens in the British Museum than in the larger and older ones; and it is rather indistinct in the two skins which I believe may be H. ruficeps from Abys- sinia.
Professors Hemprich and Ehrenberg proposed to use the form of the interparietal bone as a distinctive character for the species: thus they described it as large and trigonal in H. capensis, small and pentagonal in H. syréacus, large and nearly tetragonal in H. ruficeps, and large and semiorbicular in H. habessinicus.
M. de Blainville, in the ‘ Ostéographie,’ ‘“ Onguligrades,”’ figures the hinder part of the skull of three species to show the interparietal bone ; he figures it as elongate and subtriangular in #7. syriacus, large, broad, and roundish four-sided in H. capensis, and very broad in HH. ruficeps. The part figured as the interparietal in the last species is the broad upper edge of the occipital bone.
Dr. G. v. Jaeger, who has several skulls from the Cape, collected by Dr. Ludwig, and from North Africa by Dr. Heuglin, has written an essay to show that the interparietal bone of the same species varies much in form and size; he figures ten varieties of it in H. capensis and three in H. habes- sinicus. He seems to have confounded two species under the latter name, for fig. 14 is evidently a Dendrohyrax, Dr. Jaeger having mistaken the broad upper edge of the occipital bone for an interparietal : he also figures the interparietal of a spe- cies sent from West Africa by Mr. Dieterle, which he names H, sylvestris, which is also a Dendrohyrax; but the inter-
arletal is of a very different shape from those of the two skulls of the West African D. dorsalis in the British Museum.
Dr. Jaeger shows that the interparietal is variable in shape in Cavia agutt (Wiirzb, naturw. Jahresb. 1860, xvi. p. 158, ty BN
There is considerable difference in the form of the blade- bone in the genera Hyrax and Dendrohyrax, In Hyraz: (Nos, 7246, 7249, & 7244) it is elongate, half as long again as broad, with a short, broad process at the lower side of the condyle. In Dendrohyrax (No. 1142 6) the bladebone is broad, irregular, four-fifths as broad as long, with an elongate com- pressed process on the lower side of the condyle; the lower edge of the bone in Hyrax is sloping for half its length, and then nearly straight ; in Dendrohyrax this edge is arched from the condyle to the end, the broadest part being near the middle of the lower edge (see Cuvier, Oss. Foss. t. 3. f.1; Blainville,
Dr. J. E. Gray on the Species of Hyrax. 39
Ostéog. t.3). The following are the measurements, in inches and lines :— Hyrax,724b. Dendrohyrax, 1142 b.
Length of upper edge .......... 2 2 19 2 loweredee.: jai). ss.» ds 3 re | Width at widest part .......... Dla Les
Skulls with the teeth in change show the milk- and perma- nent cutting-teeth at the same time, thus having four upper cutting-teeth. A skull with teeth in this state is figured by Cuvier (Oss. Foss. ii. p. 135, t. 2. f. 5).
In most skulls there is a small hole on each side near the back edge of the cutting-teeth, which Cuvier calls the trous incisifs (t. 2. f. 2 n); see also Jaeger, Wiirzb. naturw. Jahresb. 1860, xvi. t. 2. f. 202, who regards it as the remainder of a deciduous second cutting-tooth. This pit is less distinct and nearer the base of the cutting-teeth in the skull of Dendro- hyrax.
Professors Hemprich and Ehrenberg propose as a specific character the length of the feet compared with the tibia; but this is difficult to observe in dried specimens or in set-up skeletons, as the length of the feet must depend greatly on how the specimens are mounted.
It is the fashion with certain naturalists (as M. Claparéde, for example) to find fault with zoologists for describing specimens in museums; but, as far as mammalia are concerned, it is much more difficult to describe them from living specimens ; for then one cannot observe their teeth and bones, or compare many specimens with one another, and can rarely have the op- portunity of comparing several species at the same time,—all much greater evils than not being able to tell the sex &c. of the specimens contained in museums. I must say that I think the accusation that ‘‘ museums are a great incubus to science ”’ must have arisen from the naturalist making it taking a very limited view of the subject. Museums may cause some evil (what does not ?); but the advantages of a large collection far exceed any evil I have ever experienced or can ever conceive to arise from them.
Fam. Hyracide.
Nose blunt, without horns. Body covered with hair, with scattered longer bristles; toes rather elongate, blunt, with flat
claws. ‘Tail short or none produced. Teeth 34: incisors os ines **°, premolars ++, molars = canines ~, premolars >, rs 55.
Hyrax, Hermann Lipura, Iliger ; Hyracide, Schinz, Syst. Mamm, 338,
40 Dr. J. E. Gray on the Species of Hyrax.
The species may be thus arranged :—
1. Hyrax. a. Dorsal spot black. 1. Hyrax capensis. South Africa. 6. Dorsal spot yellow.
* Pur harsh |; «5.5 2. H. Burtonii. North and West Africa. 3. H. Welwitsch. Angola. ae Fur sol 32s 4, H. Brucet. Abyssinia.
5. H. Alpini. Abyssinia?
6. HZ. sinatticus. Sinai.
. £. abyssinicus. Abyssinia.
1. D. dorsalis. West Africa.
2. D. arboreus. South Africa, Tete. 3. D. Blamvillii. (Skull only.)
_
D) SOIR AK Mie et Fie 3. DENDROHYRAX .
These animals form themselves into three very natural groups or genera, according to their skulls and teeth.
L. Hypax,
Skull with a distinct narrow sagittal crest on hinder part of crown when adult; nose short. Diastema short, not equal in length to the outer sides of the first three premolars ; grinders in an arched line; molars large, broad, square, much larger and broader than the compressed premolars, the first one very compressed. Orbit incomplete behind. Lower jaw very broad behind. Bladebone elongate trigonal.
Skull—nose short; forehead flat or rather convex below the orbit; orbit incomplete behind; the lower jaw much dilated behind. The diastema between the canines and the first premolar short, not so long as the outer edges of the first three premolars. Lower cutting-teeth elongate, narrow at the base, broader above, with three lobes; but the lobes are soon worn away, only leaving indistinct grooves on the surface of the teeth. The lobes of the lower cutting-teeth are distinct in the very young animals which have not yet cut their pre- molars and last grinder. The upper cutting-teeth of the milk series are rounded in front, broad and spathulate at the end ; those of the adult series are trigonal, with a strong central keel in front. The grinders form an arched series; the true grinders large, much larger than the rather compressed pre- molars; the first (permanent) premolar (that is, the second in the series) small, compressed ; the first premolar in the upper jaw of the milk series is triangular, with three roots, the two hinder ones being close together.
De Blainville, in the ‘ Ostéographie,’ figures the skeleton and the skull of a species of this genus under the name of Hyrax syriacus; but 1 am not able to determine to which of the four species of this genus it belongs. H. syriacus has almost a generic signification.
Dr. J. E. Gray on the Species of Hyrax. 41
The skull in the British Museum (725 c) that agrees with De Blainville’s figure of the interparietal bone of H. syriacus is rather larger and has the front upper premolar rather larger than the skulls of H. capensis according with the same dis- tinctive mark, viz. 724 6, 724c, and 724 d, which were all received from the Zoological Society without skins; and the hinder openings to the nostrils are more contracted in those named H. capensis than in H. syrtacus.
De Blainville (Ostéograph. t. 2) figures the skull of the very young Hyrax capensis as having all the four lower cut- ting-teeth three-lobed. They are so in a young skull so named in the British Museum; but the lobes are much less distinct and narrower than in skulls of the half-grown and adult H. dorsalis in the same collection; and the lobes of H. capensis evidently wear away much sooner than in the Tree-Hyraces or Dendrohyrax.
The skulls named Hyrax capensis in the British Museum, are without skins, and therefore cannot be determined with certainty; they differ in the width of the forehead at the hinder edge of the orbits being greater compared with the length of the skull; they differ considerably in the form of the flat space on the crown, even the skulls of adult animals.
No. 725c (of Gerrard’s Catalogue). The front of the crown is triangular, uniting into a very narrow sagittal crest level with a line over the condyles; the teeth are very large, and the palate wide.
No. 7246. Rather smaller and wider than 725c, with the teeth equally large and the palate wide; but the crown is flat, wider in front, becoming narrower and continued behind, and forming a smooth space above.
Nos. 724 c and d are smaller than either 725 or 724 6. The teeth are very large, the nose is narrower and more com- pressed ; and they differ from both the above in the crown being wider and forming a broad band to the occipital crest. In 724d the crown is only slightly broader in front, and more nearly of the same width throughout its length. In 724 it is quite as broad behind as in 724 d, but much wider in front.
The interparietal bones of these two skulls are visible ; they are nearly four-sided, and the width of the crown, similar to, but not so large as the interparietal bone figured by Blainville (Ostéograph. t. 2) as that of H. capensis.
There is the skull of a young animal, with the milk cutting- teeth, developing the second true molar, in the British Museum (724 g), that has the interparietal similar to those of 724 c and d, but considerably larger, though the skull is smaller, like the figure referred to in De Blainville.
42 Dr. J. E. Gray on the Species of Hyrax.
The skeleton with a skull (724), in the British Museum, of a young animal with milk cutting-teeth, has a subtriangular interparietal, somewhat like that of H. Burtonit.
In the British Museum there is the skull and skeleton of a very young animal, received from the Zoological Gardens (No. 724), which is peculiar for having a very broad, half- oblong interparietal bone occupying the hinder edge of the crown, with only the narrow upper edge of the occipital bone behind it. The front edge of the interparietal is regularly rounded, and the hinder one straight. The orbit is incom- plete. De Blainville figures a skull of a young specimen (Ostéog. t. 2) as H. capensis which somewhat resembles this skull. This skull, in the form of the interparietal, agrees with the nearly adult skull of Dendrohyrax dorsalis (No. 1142 c) ; but we have a skull of a very young animal of that genus im the Museum Collection which has the orbit complete and the upper part of the occipital bone dilated. This skull is so dis- tinct from any other in the collection that I propose to designate it provisionally Hyrax semicircularis.
The interparietal bone being on the edge of the occipital region of the skull is a character (as well as the incomplete orbit) that separates the skull of Hyrax and Dendrohyraz, even in the youngest state.
* Dorsal spot black, well marked. Africa.
1. Hyrax capensis. The Klipdas.
Fur black, minutely punctulated with white, with a black dorsal streak.
Hyrazx capensis, Schreb. Siugeth. 920, t. 240; Cuvier, Oss. Foss. ii. 127, 141, t. 1, 2,8; Gray, List Mam. Brit. Mus. 187; Gerrard, Cat. Bones Brit. Mus. 283; Blainville, Ostéograph. t. 2 (teeth & skull); W. Read, P. Z. 8. 1835, p. 18.
Cavia capensis, Pallas, Misc. 34, 35; Spicil. ii. 22. t. 2.
Marmotte du Cap, Buffon, Suppl. ii. 177, t. 29.
Hab. South Africa, Cape of Good Hope. (Dr. Andrew
Smith.)
Var. Dorsal streak indistinct. Cape of Good Hope (Dr. Krauss). Skull and skeleton, B.M.
For anatomy, see Pallas, Miscell. /. c.; Owen, P. Z.S. 1832, p. 202; Mar- tin, P.Z.5. 1835, p. 13; Maurie, P. Z. 8. 1865, p. 329.
But I am by no means sure that several species may not be confounded under this name; for all the specimens formerly received at the Zoological Gardens were called /Z. capensis.
Dr. J. E. Gray on the Species of Hyrax. 43
** Dorsal streak yellow, linear. a. Fur harsh. 2. Hyrax Burtonit.
Fur rather harsh, pale yellow grey, very slightly punctulated with blackish ; dorsal streak small, yellow; the hairs of the back rather rigid, black or dark brown nearly the whole length, with a moderate yellow tip; underside pale yellow; inter- parietal bone half-ovate, as long as broad.
Hyrax syriacus, Gray, List. Mam. B. M. HH. abyssinicus, Burton, MS. B. M.; Gerrard, Cat. Bones B. M. 284.
Hab. North Africa, Egypt (James Burton, Esq.): three specimens and a skull in B.M. Senegal (Parzudaki) : a young specimen in B.M.
The imperfect skull sent by Mr. James Burton from North Africa, with the skins, which I have named H. Burtonii (No. 7256), is not quite adult, as the hinder or third upper true molar is not quite developed. It is very like No. 724 c in size, form, and in the form of the crown; but the notch left by the interparietal (for it is lost with the hinder part of the skull) shows that that bone was of a half-oval shape, and rather longer than broad, being rather wider but not near so long compared with its width as the interparietal figured as that of H. syriacus by De Blainville (Ostéograph. t. 2). This skull differs from those numbered 724 ¢ and d in being higher behind when placed on its upper grinders, and in the forehead being slightly more convex in the middle below the orbit.
3. Hyrax Welwitschit.
Fur short, rather harsh, iron-grey-grizzled ; hairs of upper part of the back black, with a large white subapical ring; of the sides dirty brown, with a white ring; dorsal streak yellow, moderate.
Hyrax arboreus, Peters, P. Z. 8S. 1865, p. 401 (not A. Smith).
Hab. Rocky places on the shores of the River Maiomba, in the district of Mossamedes (Welwitsch, /. c.).
The adult skull of H. Welwitschit, lent to me by Dr. Wel- witsch, differs from all the preceding in being considerably broader in proportion to its length. ‘The nose is compressed, the crown is flat to the occipital ridge, wide in front, and gra- dually narrowing behind. The interparietal bone (which is partly destroyed by a hole made: to extract the brain) is very small and nearly triangular ; the teeth are large, and the palate rather narrow, compared with the other skulls. The diastema
44 Dr. J. E. Gray on the Species of Hyrax.
is very short, not exceeding the length of the outer side of the | first two premolars. The shortness and width of this skull at once separate it from the skulls of all the species of true Hyrax that are in the Museum Collection. This species is only known from a flat skin and a skull collected by Dr. Welwitsch and named by Dr. Peters as above.
Dr. Peters, in a note to me, observes, “ I probably made a mistake, and the Hyrax (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1865, p. 401) with rather harsh and short hair does not belong to H. arboreus, Smith. It has, if I am not mistaken, much shorter ears than H. arboreus; and therefore I said the H. arboreus has much shorter ears than H. capensis, which is not the case. Dr. Welwitsch’s specimen resembles more the H. habessinicus of Ehrenberg in this respect, and may prove to be identical with that species.”
I may add that it differs from H. abyssinicus in the skull, the short diastema, and the colour and nature of its fur. It is more allied to H. Burtonii, but differs in the colour of the fur. It is very difficult to state the size of the ears of the different species from stuffed or dried skins.
Dr. Welwitsch says, “It always differs by its larger size from a second species living in the interior of Angola.” I have not seen any specimens from the latter locality.
b. Fur soft, close. 4. Hyrax Brucet.
Fur soft, close, yellow grey brown, closely and minutely punctulated with black; underside white; dorsal streak di- stinct, dark reddish yellow; hairs of the back soft, dark grey brown, with a narrow subterminal band and a yellow tip. Skull: iterparietal bone oblong, longer than broad.
Ashkoko, Bruce’s Travels, t. Daman d Israél, Buffon, Suppl. vi. 276, t. 24 (from Bruce). Hyrax syriacus, Schreb. Saugeth. iv. t. 240. 13 (from Bruce); Blainville,
Ostéograph. t. 2 (skull and teeth).
Hyrax abyssinicus, Ruppell, MS. B. M.; Gerrard, Cat. Bones B. M. 284;
Burton, MS. B. M.
PHyrax ruficeps vel dongolanus, Ehrenberg, Symbole Phys. t. 2 (not
Blainville).
Hab. Africa, Abyssinia (Dr. Riippell): type in B.M. ? Dongola (Ehrenberg): adult skull in B.M.
The name of H. syriacus cannot be retained for this species, as it does not come from Syria.
Dr. Peters, in a note which he sent to me respecting Ehren- berg’s specimen in the Berlin Museum, observes, “ His Hyrax rujficeps is hardly different from H. syriacus.” By the second
Dr. J. E. Gray on the Species of Hyrax. 45
name which Ehrenberg gives to this species it evidently came from Dongola in Africa; so it can scarcely be the H. syrtacus of Ehrenberg from Mount Sinai.
5. Hyrax Alpini.
Fur very soft, rather long, pale yellowish brown, very slightly washed with blackish ; hairs soft, of uniform length, blackish brown, with yellow tips, and a few scattered black hairs: lips, chin, throat, chest, belly, and inner sides of the limbs pale reddish yellow ; hairs yellow to the base: crown and cheeks grizzled, with white tips to the hairs ; hairs at the outer base of the ears yellow white; dorsal spot small, reddish yellow.
Hab. North Africa, “‘ Abyssinia (Leadbeater).”’
There is only a single specimen of this species in the British Museum ; it was purchased in 1843, with the skin of a Capra nubiana, from Mr. Leadbeater, who said they came from Abys- sinia. The special habitat may be doubtful; but there is no doubt they were from North Africa, and probably from the borders of the Nile.
It agrees with the H. Bruced of Abyssinia in the softness of the fur, but differs from it in its general colour, not being closely punctulated, and also in the separate hairs not having any indication of the subterminal black band that produces the punctulated appearance of the fur of that species; and the underside of the animal is yellower. It differs also from 1. sinat- ticus in the general colour being much darker and slightly washed with black, and in the dark colour of the hairs.
H, Burtonii, which we received from Mr. James Burton, with specimens of Capra nubiana, is at once known from it by the rigid harshness of the fur, as well as by the colour of the hairs.
6. Hyrax sinaiticus.
Fur rather long, soft, pale yellow brown; dorsal streak bright yellow; head and front slightly punctulated with whitish ; chin, throat, and underside of the body pale reddish grey. ‘ Interparietal bone small, pentagonal” (Khr.).
Hyrax syriacus vel sinaiticus, Hemp. & Ehrenb. Symb. Phys. t. 2, lower front figure (not Schreber).
Coney (H. syriacus), Tristram, Nat. Hist. Bible, p. 75 (not figured). Uabr, Forsk. Fauna, p. 5.
Hab. Asia, Palestine (Tristram): B.M. Arabia, Mount Sinai (Ehrenberg).
There is a young specimen in the British Museum, that was
46 Dr. J. E. Gray on the Species of Hyrax.
purchased at a sale with Capra nubiana, which appears to be- long to this species; it has the same long hair and fur, show- ing no sign of the punctulation characteristic of the African species with a yellow dorsal spot.
Mr. Tristram gives a good account of the habits and manners of this animal in his interesting ‘ Natural History of the Bible,’ published by the Christian Knowledge Society.
2. EUHYRAX.
Skull with a distinct narrow sagittal crest the whole length of the crown when adult; occipital not dilated above ; nose elongate, produced. Diastema elongate, longer than the length of the outer sides of the first three premolars; grinders in a nearly straight series; molars square, larger than the com- pressed premolars. Orbit incomplete behind.
The skull is very similar to that of Hyrax syriacus?, H. Brucet, H. Burtonii, and H. capensis in general form; but the space between the upper cutting-teeth and the first pre- molar is nearly twice as long as in those species. In the H, Brucet it is as long as the length of the outer sides of the first three premolars and the half of the fourth one ; in H. capensis it is only as long as the outer sides of the first two premolars and one-third of the third one. The grinders are large, the first upper one being compressed as in H. capensis ; but they are all smaller, compared with the size of the skull, and are placed in a straighter line, than they are in the other skulls of the species named, and the inner sides of them are more nearly parallel, so that the palate is scarcely wider in the middle of the series of grinders than it is at the front and hinder ends of them. Lower jaw dilated behind. The bladebone elongate trigonal like that of Hyraz.
I may observe that Mr. Gerrard, in his ‘Catalogue of Bones of Mammalia in the British Museum,’ has pointed out that there is a distinction in the skeleton between this species and H. capensis. He states that the specimen 724 a, in his Catalogue, ‘has twenty-two pairs of ribs, the first of which are articulated to the last cervical vertebra, and five sternal bones,” the H. capensis, 724 6, in the same collection having only twenty-one pairs of ribs and seven sternal bones. (See Cat. Bones, p. 283.)
It is well worthy of observation that all these osteological characters exist in two species scarcely to be distinguished by their skins. The skull of Huhyrax abyssinicus is interme- diate between Hyrax and Dendrohyrax, but more allied to Hyrax. .
Dr. J. E. Gray on the Species of Hyrax. 47
Euhyrax abyssinicus. Fur blackish, minutely punctulated with white, with a black dorsal spot. Hyrax habessynicus, Hemp. & Ehrenb. Sym. Phys. (specific characters).
Hyrax abyssinicus, Gieber, Mam. 213. HI. syriacus, Hemp. &. Ehrenb. Symb. Phys. t. 2 (hinder figures only).
Hab. Abyssinia, Ankober, Dec. 1847 (male and female) called “‘ Ashkoko” (Capt. Cornwallis Harris). B.M.
Ehrenberg describes the interparietal of H. capensis as tri- gonal, and of H. habesstnicus as semiorbicular, and the space between the canine and grinders of H. habessinicus as being longer than in /. capensis; he also says that the fur of H. capensis is sott, and of H. habessinicus more rigid; but I can- not discover any appreciable difference in this respect between the Cape and the Abyssinian species.
The skull of the adult Huhyrax abyssinicus, from the Abys- sinian skin, is larger than that of any species of Hyrax, and nearly as large as that of Dendrohyrax dorsalis ; it is narrow, and the smooth space on the crown is linear, of nearly equal width from a line on a level with the front of the condyles.
The second skull (from the skeleton No. 724 a) which I be- lieve to belong to this species, has decayed grinders, having been kept in confinement. It is very like the type specimen, but it is rather shorter, and the hinder part of the crown or sagittal crest is narrower. ‘This skull is exceedingly like the skull figured with its skeleton under the name of Hyrax sy- riacus by M. de Blaimville (Ostéograph. t. 1 & 2). It differs from the figure a little in the form of the process of the lower jaw in front of the condyle; but in this respect it also differs from the type specimens of Huhyrax abyssinicus. In both skulls the upper edge of the occipital bone is narrow, as in Hyracx.
Dr. Peters has, since the above was written, sent me the following observations on Professor Ehrenberg’s specimen in the Berlin Museum :—“ 1. habessinicus is a very good species, and may prove to be the same as the H/. dorsalis. ‘There is a figure of a younger specimen in his work ‘ Symbole Physic,’ Mammalia, pl. 2. f. 2, together with H. syriacus. As you will see from the text, the skull is quite different from that of H. capensis, H. syriacus (ruficeps), and H. arboreus. The zygomatic arch is lower than on its junction with the zygo- matic process of the maxillary bones; but the teeth are small, as in H. arboreus. The hair is harsh, black and grey ; and the hair of the belly is much shorter, greyish, sometimes yellowish, without soft fur.”
;
48 Dr. J. E. Gray on the Species of Hyrax.
“The skull of my specimen from the coast (regarded as H. arboreus in the ‘Mammalia of Mossambique’) agrees pretty well with that of H. habessinicus and with another skull sent by Heuglin from Abyssinia. I cannot understand how this species could be confounded with H. capensis.”
I may add that H. abyssinicus cannot be H. dorsalis, as the former has a black and the latter a white dorsal spot, which is well marked in both species.
3. DENDROHYRAX.
Skull rather elongate, with a broad flat crown, separating the entire length of the temporal muscle in the adult animal ; nose elongate, produced. Diastema elongate, longer than the length of the outer sides of the first three premolars; grinders and premolars in a nearly straight line, and nearly of the same form, the front premolar being only a little smaller. Orbit complete (or incomplete even in a mature skull).
Nose rather produced ; forehead flat; temporal muscles mo- derate, separated in the adult skull by a broad flat crown; the upper edge of the occipital bone thick, broad, forming part of the crown; lower jaw broad, rounded behind. Lower cutting-teeth moderately long, rather contracted at the base ; upper edge dilated and divided into three nearly square, rather spathulate lobes. The lower cutting-teeth are rather elongated in the older animal, but never so long and slender at the base as in the true Hyraces. ‘The upper cutting-teeth of the milk series are rounded in front, and obliquely truncated, spathulate at the end. The canine of the adult series is trigonal, with the keel in the front as in the true Hyraces. The diastema between the canine and the first premolar, in the adult skull, is elongate, as long as the outer margin of the three premolars. The grinders form a very slightly arched series. The true grinders moderate, not much larger than the broad square pre- molars. The first permanent premolar nearly as large as the second one.
The skull of Dendrohyrax dorsalis: may be known from those of Hyrax and Euhyrax, in the youngest state, by the large size of the half-oblong interparietal bone, which is nearly twice as wide as long. In the nearly adult skull it occupies the whole space of the hinder part of the crown. The skull of this genus is also peculiar for the upper part of the occipital bone being produced and expanded, and forming the hinder
art of the crown, the hinder edge of the flattened part being keeled and sharply produced in the centre.
There is the skull, with only a few teeth, of a very young
Dr. J. E. Gray on the Species of Hyrax. 49
animal in the British Museum (No. 724 f) that agrees with the skull just described in having the upper part of the occi- pital bone broad and forming part of the crown, and in having complete orbits. It also has a very large, broad, transverse interparietal bone, nearly as wide as the convex crown of the skull; but this is four-sided, and twice as wide as high, as if formed of two squares united in the middle; the outer sides of the bone are rather angular in the middle. I suspect this is the young animal of D. dorsalis.
a. Orbit complete. Dendrohyrax.
1. Dendrohyrax dorsalis.
Fur rigid, bristly, blackish ; dorsal spot elongate, pure white. Young—tur soft, silky, reddish brown; back with a broad dorsal streak.
Hyrax dorsalis, Fraser, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852, p. 99; Verreaux, Cat. H. abyssinicus, Read, MS. Mus. Zool. Soc.; Gerrard, Cat. Bones B, M. 284
(no. 725 a).
Hyrax arboreus, Blainy. Ostéogr. t. 2, skull and teeth (not A. Smith) ;
Gerrard, Cat. Bones B. M. 284.
Hab. West Africa (Verreaux). Fernando Po (Fraser): B.M. Ashantee (Read).
There are two adult skulls of this species in the British Museum—one obtained from Fernando Po, and the other re- ceived from Mr. James Read, who obtained it from the cap of an Ashantee negro. In both the forehead is flat, rather con- cave between the orbits, and the orbits have a complete bony ring; they both agree exactly with the figure of the skull of H. arboreus in De Blainville’s ‘ Ostéographie,’ and with the skull without a lower jaw in the British Museum.
There are the skeleton and skull of a young specimen in the British Museum, purchased from Mr. Jamrach; and this skull agrees with the two adult ones in the concavity of the forehead over the orbits and the complete bony rings to the orbits.
2. Dendrohyrax arboreus. 'The Boomdas.
“Hur reddish fulvous, varied with black; sides reddish white mixed with black; underside and inner sides of limbs whitish; with a central white dorsal streak.” (A. Smith.) Young—fur very soft, long, abundant, dark black grey, varied with paler grey; lips, chin, throat, underside of body, and inner sides of limbs white. B.M. Skull ?
Hyrax arboreus, A. Smith, Linn. Trans. xv. p. 468 ; Peters, Mossamb. 182 ?
(not Blainville) ; Kirk, P. Z.S. 1864, p. 656?
Hab. South Africa (A. Smith): a young specimen with
Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.4. Vol.i. 4
50 Dr. J. E. Gray on the Species of Hyrax.
milk-canines, South Africa, from Sir Andrew Smith: Mos- sambique, ‘Tete (Peters, Kirk).
There is no adult specimen of this species in the British Museum; there is a young specimen, with the milk-teeth, re- ceived from Sir Andrew Smith, the original describer of the species. It is so different from the young specimen of the West African species received from M. Verreaux, which agrees with the adult tropical species described by Mr. Fraser, in the British Museum Collection, that there can be no doubt that the South and West African species are distinct, though the French zoologists and osteologists have confounded them.
The young specimen is at once known from the young of D. dorsalis by the paler colour of the fur, the want of the dark dorsal streak, and the whiteness of the under surface.
Dr. Peters, in his ‘Mammalia of Mossambique,’ says that D. arboreus is the only species of Hyrax he found in Mozam- bique. It occurs near the capital of Mozambique, on the coast, and at Tete in the interior, where it is called MWézra.
It would be interesting to know if this is the same as H. dorsalis, as the latter occurs at Ashantee.
Common on rocky hillsides, living in colonies. Caught by spring-traps; flesh good to eat (Kirk, P. Z. 8. 1864).
Dr. Peters, in a note to me respecting the Hyraces mentioned in his ‘Mammalia of Mossambique,’ observes, “ It may be that there are two species of Hyrax in Mossambique—one on the coast, and the other in the interior. From the coast I only got a female specimen: the skull of this species shows small grinders compared with those of H. syriacus, and seven in number.” See further observations on this skull under Huhyrax abyssinicus. ‘* The other specimen from the interior, the Car- nera Hills near Tete, agrees perfectly with the H. arboreus from the Cape.” This species is easily to be distinguished by its soft fur and want of rusty colour; the hairs of the under- side are white, and brownish grey at the base.
b. Orbit incomplete. Heterohyrax. 3. Dendrohyrax Blainvillit.
An adult skull in the British Museum (No, 724 e), without its lower jaw, was received from the Zoological Society with- out any habitat or history attached to it. It has small, more equal-sized molars and premolars, in a nearly straight line, and the great length of the diastema which is so characteristic of this section of the genus. It may be the skull of the D. arboreus of South Africa. It differs from the skull of D. dor- salis in being small, in the forehead being convex in the centre between the orbits, and in the orbits bemg incomplete behind.
Dr. J. E. Gray on the Species of Hyrax. 51 It has the alveoli of the upper cutting-teeth each raised into a cup round the base of the tooth; but this may be only an individual peculiarity.
This skull has all the characters of the genus Dendro- hyrax, except that the orbit is incomplete behind. I think that it indicates a new group, to which the name Heterohyrax may be given. The skull is much smaller and the tooth-line much shorter than in D. dorsalis; and I propose to name it provisionally Heterohyrax Blainvillii. The skull which M. de Blainville figures as that of Hyrax rufipes (Ostéograph. t. 2) exactly represents the hinder part of that in the Museum. It cannot be the A. ruficeps of Ehrenberg.
Dr. G. v. Jaeger figured, under the name of Hyrax habessi- nicus (t. 2. f. 14), the upper part of the skull of a Dendrohyrax obtained from Gondar by Dr. von Heuglin. Dr. Jaeger, by mistake, figures the upper edge of the occipital for the inter- parietal. This skull is interesting as showing that the genus is found in Abyssinia.
Dr. G. v. Jaeger also figures the back of the skull and inter- parietal bone of a species he calls Zyraz silvestris, collected in West Africa by the missionary Dieterle. It is probably a Dendrohyrax. The hinder part of the figure is the upper edge of the occipital. The interparietal is urn-shaped, broader in front and contracted behind, very unlike that found in the skulls of either of the two species in the British Museum, and especially differing from D. dorsalis of West Africa; so it may be a new species of the genus, Dendrohyrazx silvestris (Wiirzb. naturw. Jahresb, xvi. p. 162, t. 2. f. 15).
The Measurements of the Skulls, in inches and lines.
Als -3 _ 5 A :3 Bs 8 = 3 3 SS cS =| - na po s 8 18 = | 8 g Ng eC = .\¢ sla ere witeke aap e es lesies|es|av| gs [Es| S | s=| ES] Ea lig | ES] Ss 8 /PS/ES|ES|ES| ES |S8) ® | ES [28/83/85 |88/ 88 ise (a eS AY |e fy | RE RS a [A [a | a Length of skull ...... ZOOS 7 poco) |s.6 |e Salo DE nse 3 2 7z|2 22/40 4/2 1/3 4 9 tooth-line. |16 |1 43/16 {16 |14 |1 2 |...... 1 Wate led | Aare 0) | SA Ue Ol Be col heacono 1 23 Width, at centre of pene, al fore” 2 23/2 03/2 02/21 119 |1 82/18 |20 |1 7 ]13 /28 ]110]1 23)1 11 or Weert ae ee ee tage \h6 (1-6 |1-6 [1312.3 ft 2b11.6,|2,.2 |10.119 [a eza Olt 5% Width of band at middle of crown »/0 3 |0 2 |0 03/06 |06 |0 7 /0 63/98 | .... [o... O59) TO ive. 0 10 over condyles ... Width of nose......... 07 |07 |08 |07 |06 /0 53\07 |0 6/0 6 J05 |0 83/0 7/0 5]0 7 » _ at outer edge of tooth-line, at }}1 3 |12 {14 |12 /11 |1 03/10 |1 03/0 103/09 |1 23/1 0}...... 0 113 ~ Ee ad por cetes' idth of palate at ts ee: bo 73/0 74I0 8 07/06 /0 7 jostlo6lo 6 |... O St oreo 0 6
52 Dr. H. Burmeister on Globiocephalus Grayi.
VII.— On Globiocephalus Grayi, nov. spec. By Dr. HERMANN BURMEISTER.
[Plate IT. figs. 2 & 3.]
Two months ago the public museum of Buenos Ayres received the skull of a large Dolphin of the subgenus G'lobiocephalus, which seems to belong to an unknown species inhabiting the southern parts of the Atlantic Ocean, as the skull was found on the shore of the State of Buenos Ayres. I venture to describe this new species under the name of my friend Dr. J. KE. Gray, who has recently contributed so greatly, by his valu- able investigations, to the increase of our knowledge of the Cetacea.
Compared with the skull of Globiocephalus svineval s. melas, as shown in the figures of this species given by Cuvier (Ossem. Foss. tome i. pl. xxi. fig. 11) and Gray (Catal. p- 316), this skull is somewhat larger in the anterior part of the nose, and not so large in the posterior part between the orbital arch. 'To show this difference, I here give the mea- surements of the new species corresponding with those of the European species given by Dr. Gray (J. c.) :-—
in. Jin, Entire length of the skull ...... 25 O Length of the nasal part........ 13. 0 Length of the teeth-series ...... 10 0 Length of under jaw .......... aL) 0 Widthvat neteh =... 360. ce ees. 12 0 Widthiiat orbit... See 14 6 Width of intermaxillaries ...... Gi) 6 Width of middle of nose........ 8 6 Height oPoceiput oe. 2: LOL
As the general form of the exterior of the skull is sufficiently shown by the accompanying figure (Pl. II. fig. 2), I will describe only the differences of its constituent bones. The greatest difference is shown in the form of the tip of the nose, which is much broader and more rounded in Globiocephalus Grayt than in G. svineval. This difference is combined with a totally different form of the intermaxillary bones, these being short, rounded at the anterior extremity, and then nearly parallel, with the outer margins not diverging posteriorly as im the European species. In the middle these bones, in my new species, are narrower and more excavated at the margin ; and at their hinder parts they are rather more curved. out- wards, The part of the vomer which is visible between the intermaxillaries seems to be somewhat broader, and the small portion of the maxillaries, seen from above at the sides of the
Dr. H. Burmeister on Globiocephalus Grayi. 53
vomer, much shorter. The narrow form of the anterior part of the intermaxillaries allows us to see a considerable portion of the maxillaries on all sides of the tip of the nose; these appear only as a narrow band in the European species. The form of the maxillaries, at their anterior extremity, is also different; they are here broader and shortly rounded, and nearly parallel on the outer margins. The orbital part is not so broad, and the hinder edge of the orbit not so prominent. On the other hand, the cerebral region of the skull is broader, and much more produced behind in my species.
The small surface of the frontal bones seen behind the maxillaries is comparatively broader, and the elevated margin of the parietals which separates the upper surface of the skull from the occipital surface is nearly in a straight line, a little undulated on each side, but by no means curved forwards as in the European species. In the latter the exterior margins of the occipital surface, which are also the hinder margins of the temporal groove, are inclined backward on both sides ; but they are perfectly parallel and much more prominent in G. Grayt, so that the general form of the occipital surface in this species is rather a plane than a portion of a spherical curve as in the European species. Hence the occipital condyles are more pro- minent posteriorly in the former and more retracted in the latter.
Beneath, the general configuration of the skull is nearly the same in both species; but a very important difference is to be found in the length of the teeth-series. In the European species this series occupies only half the length of the margin of the maxillary, but in the new Argentine species nearly the whole margin, except only an extent of 2 inches at its hinder extremity. This difference is very remarkable, and is due to the greater size of the teeth, especially the anterior ones. The European species has generally twelve teeth on each side, in some cases fourteen, or, exceptionally, only eleven. My new species has only nine teeth on each side in both jaws; and these are of nearly equal size, except that the first is somewhat smaller: in the European species, the first five teeth are very small, increasing somewhat in size posteriorly ; and the seven following ones also are not equal in size, but gradually in- creasing. All the teeth in G. Grayi are nearly of the same form, having a.truncated molar surface and a very short pro- minent crown; more than two-thirds of each tooth is enclosed in the alveolus, terminating below in a conical root which is nearly closed, exhibiting only a very small opening in the middle (Pl. IL. fig. 3, a tooth, half the natural size).
The lower jaw is rather strong. Each ramus is 21 inches in length, and 6 inches 4 lines in depth at the well-marked coro-
54 Prof. M‘Coy on a new Volute.
noid process. The symphysis extends 3 inches 6 lines ; and the teeth-series occupies nearly one-half of the upper margin from the tip to the coronoid process, measuring 9 inches 4 lines in length, and the free part of the margin to the extremity of the coronoid process 10 inches.
I know nothing of the other parts of the skeleton.
On my first voyage across the Atlantic, I saw seven Globio- cephalt swimming near the vessel, in 10° N. lat., on the 2nd November, 1850 (see my ‘Reise nach Brasilien,’ Berlin, 1852, p. 43), and observed them for a long time. I suppose these animals would be of the same species as the one here described ; and if so, their whole external appearance is iden- tical with the figure given by Couch (Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. Ist ser. vol. ix. 1842, pl. 6). But as I did not see the under- side of the swimming animal, I cannot say whether this species has the white spot which is characteristic of the European animal.
VITI.— On a new Volute. By Prof. M‘Coy. [Plate II. fig. 1.] Voluta Thatchert (M‘Coy). PI. II. fig. 1.
' Slender, elongate fusiform; greatest width (which is near the middle of the body-whorl) only half the length of the body- whorl; about ten tubercles on the penultimate whorl, slightly below the middle; only about seven on the shoulder of the body-whorl, from their being obsolete near the outer lip. Seven thick plaits on the columella, the two posterior smaller than the rest, which are nearly equal. Colour a white ground, with a row of elongate quadrangular spots on the suture and two broad spiral bands of hieroglyphic markings on the body-whorl, one just below the tubercles and the other near the anterior end; in front of the latter an irregular row of small quadrate spots ; all the markings pale yellowish brown (“ burnt-sienna”’ colour) ; traces of a yellowish reticulation between the bands.
Length of the last three whorls 2 inches 10 lines, width 1 inch 13 line; length of penultimate and antepenultimate whorls together 6 lines.
I name this beautiful Volute after Mr. Charles M. Thatcher, of Melbourne, an enthusiastic and acute conchologist, who perceived the probable novelty of the species from the most obvious characters of the slender form and seven plaits to the pillar—a combination of characters separating it from all others Iknow. Mr. Thatcher has added the specimen to the National- Museum Collection at Melbourne. The spire is broken.
Habitat unknown.
Dr. H. A. Nicholson on the Graptolitide. dd
IX.—On the Nature and Zoological Position of the Graptoli- tide. By Henry ALLEYNE NicHoxson, D.Sc.,M.B.,F.G.S. [Plate HI. ] THE Graptolitide constitute a group of extinct organisms which may be considered characteristically Silurian, though one genus (Dictyonema) passes up as high as the Middle Old Red in America. Their zoological position has always been a matter of doubt; and they have been referred by different paleontologists to the Cephalopoda, the Hydrozoa, the Actino- zoa, the Polyzoa, and recently to the Foraminifera. The first and last of these views require no further notice; but the re- maining three are still maintained by different competent autho- rities, and the question must be looked upon as still undecided. In the following brief description of the morphology, develop- ment, and reproduction of the Graptolitide I purpose to draw attention to the facts which appear to favour the view, origi- nally put forth by Prof. M‘Coy, that the group should be re- ferred to the Hydrozoa.
Morphology.—As to the morphology of the Graptolitide, the simplest form of Graptolite is composed of three factors, structurally and developmentally distinct, but united into a single linear stipe. These three elements (Pl. III. fig. 2) are known as the “solid axis,” the “‘ common canal,” and the “ cellules;’’ and when combined together the solid axis is found as a cylindrical filament, or laminar plate, having on one side of it the common canal, from which, as a common con- necting substance, arise the denticulated cellules. In this wa are formed those simple forms of Graptolites (Pl. ILI. fig. 1) to which alone the genus G'raptolites or Graptolithus ought to be restricted; and by the combination of such in various dif- ferent modes are formed all the remaining generic types of the Graptolitide. The simple uniserrate Graptolites thus com- posed, such as G. Sedqwickii, G. sagittarius, &c., have cer- tainly no direct representatives amongst either the Hydrozoa or the Polyzoa; but the corneous nature of the entire polypary and the presence of a “common canal” would seem to refer them to the former, since the latter have, as a rule, a more or less caleareous test, and the individuals forming the compound organism are not united by any organized connecting substance. There is, besides, an obvious resemblance between the mono- prionidian stipes and the separate branchlets of some of the Plumulariz, such as Plumularia pennatula and P. cristata ; whilst the diprionidian forms constituting the genus Di- plograpsus have an equally obvious analogy to the ramuscles of some of the Sertularians, such as Sertularia abietina and
S. filicula.
56 Dr. H. A. Nicholson on the Nature and
The “solid axis” is one of the primitive elements in the formation of every Graptolite. In the simple monoprionidian species it seems to be a solid cylindrical rod (PI. III. fig. 2); but in the biserrate forms it is certainly a corneous plate, di- viding the frond into two vertical compartments (PI. III. fig. 3), apparently composed of two lamine, with a median cylindrical rod and perhaps including a central canal. The axis may be prolonged beyond one or both extremities of the celluliferous stipe; and for convenience I shall term these respectively the basal or “ proximal” and the terminal or “ distal’ extensions
“of the axis. These prolongations (Pl. III. fig. 4) are little understood; but they require especial attention, as throwing great light upon the true nature of the Graptolitide. The proxi- mal extension of the axis is present in probably all the true Graptolites, and constitutes the “ radicle”’ or ‘“ initial point” of Hall. The radicle varies greatly in length, and it may consist of the solid axis alone, as in Diplograpsus teretiusculus &ce.; or it may be bordered by the common canal prolonged upwards into the first cellule or cellules, as in G. sagittarvus, Linn., Diplograpsus cometa, Gein., and D. acuminatus, Nich. gain, in most of the branching and complex Graptolites the solid axes of the various simple stipes composing the frond, together probably with the common canal, are prolonged proxi- mally and are united into a connecting process, which is always destitute of cellules and is termed the “funicle” by Hall, as is seen in the genera Dichograpsus and Tetragrapsus (P\. III. figs. 5, 6, 15, 16, and 20).
Lastly, the subdivisions of the funicle may be embraced by a central corneous disk or cup, which is apparently composed of two lamine, and probably enclosed a central cavity. This corneous cup (fig. 6) is best seen in several species of Dicho- grapsus and Tetragrapsus ; but it also exists in some specimens of Diplograpsus bicornis, Hall (figs. 8, 9,10), and in a new species of Diplograpsus from the Upper Llandeilo rocks of Dumfriesshire, which I have named D. physophora (fig. 7). The distal extension of the solid axis is only seen in the D7- plograpsi, and possibly in Retiograpsus, Hall, and Retiolites, Barr., seeming to be merely accidental when seen in the adult monoprionidian forms, as it rarely is, This distal extension of the axis usually consists of the solid axis alone, as in all the common Diplograpsi; but it may consist of a bladder-like body, more or less elliptical in form, with a distinct filiform margin and of uncertain function. This vesicular dilatation seems always to be a direct expansion of the axis, which would thus appear to be tubular. It is seen to a very moderate ex- tent in some specimens of D. pristis, His., and D. palmeus,
Zoological Position of the Graptolitide. oT
Barr., but it is very largely developed in a new species of D- plograpsus from the Dumfriesshire Shales, which I have named D. vesiculosus (Pl. III. fig. 11).
The homologies of the solid axis, with its extensions and ap- pendages, are by nomeansclear. ‘There is no known structure, either amongst the Hydrozoa or Polyzoa, which could be looked upon as its exact equivalent; and it is probably related (but by analogy only) with the horny or calcareous “ sclerobasis ” of the Gorgonide and Pennatulide amongst the Actinozoa. Its chief function certainly seems to have been to give due support to the ccenosarc, and to prevent injurious flexion of the pliable polypary ; but it probably subserved other purposes of even greater importance. No close parallel can be drawn between the “radicle” of the Graptolitide and the foot-stalk of the Sertularidee, since the former structure beyond doubt did not serve as an organ of attachment. The central disk or cup of some Dichograpsi, Tetragrapsi, and Diplograpst was compared by Prof. Huxley with the basal plate of Defrancia, a Bryo- zoon; but I think a more probable homologue is to be found in the “float,” or ‘“pneumatocyst,” of the Physophoride, an order of the oceanic Hydrozoa. The distal extension of the axis is entirely without a parallel ; and when dilated, as in Diplo- grapsus vesiculosus, Nich., it is difficult to conceive of any function which it can have subserved. It cannot be of the nature of a float, since it occupies the distal and not the proxi- mal extremity of the organism; and the most probable view would perhaps be to consider it in some way connected with the reproductive process. The second element, namely the “common canal,” is structurally a tube extending along more or less of the axis, and giving origin to the cellules. Ordi- narily it appears as a flattened space between the cellules and the solid axis (Pl. III. fig. 2); and it seems certainly to be a distinct structure even in those forms in which the cell-parti- tions are attached to the axis. As to the intimate nature of the common canal, there seems to be no doubt that it conveyed a soft connecting substance uniting the various polypites into an organic whole; and it is therefore homologous with the “coenosarc”’ of the Hydrozoa. Its existence consequently forms one of the strongest grounds for eliminating the Grap- tolitidee from the Polyzoa, since no analogous structure is known to occur in any of the latter.
Of the cellules there is little to be said. They vary much in shape; but they usually constitute more or less cylindrical or quadrangular tubes, the bases of which are attached to the common canal, whilst the opposite extremities terminate in open mouths—the “ cell-apertures.” They thus come to re-
58 Dr. H. A. Nicholson on the Nature and
semble somewhat the “ hydrothece”’ of the Sertularide; but they are invariably in contact for a greater or less portion of their length, and they do not seem ever to be cut off from the common canal by any partition or diaphragm.
Development.—The ordinary germs or embryonic forms of Graptolites (Pl. III. figs. 12, 13), in the youngest condition in which they are preserved to us, are minute corneous bodies, consisting of a small radicle or mucro, which is in fact the commencement of the solid axis. This, the primitive structure of the embryo, is widened out distally by the presence of the common canal on one or both sides, according as the germ belongs to a mono- or to a diprionidian species ; and finally one or two primordial cellules are superadded. Even at this stage the solid axis projects beyond the primitive cellules as a naked rod ; and its growth was probably carried on to a certain extent independently of the rest of the organism. ‘These germs are various In size, and differ in minor details ; but they all pos- sessed a corneous envelope, and they cannot safely be compared to any of the embryonic forms of the existing Hydrozoa or Bryozoa. It must, in fact, be considered very probable that these germs, as we see them, are considerably advanced in growth, and that the earliest form of the embryo was devoid of any corneous test.
As to the further development of the stipe, it must suffice to state that in the simpler genera the secondary cellules appear to be intercalated between the initial point or radicle and the primordial cellule or cellules, so that the youngest cellules are proximal, the oldest distal in position. his mode of develop- ment corresponds with that observed in the Calycophoride and Physophoridz amongst the Hydrozoa.
Reproduction.—Until quite of late years, the reproductive process in the Graptolitidee was quite unknown ; and even now our knowledge is partial and to a great extent inferential. In 1858 Prof. Hall gave a description of some specimens of D7- plograpsus Whitfieldit bearing bodies which he regarded as ovarian vesicles. According to Hall, these appear as small ovate buds attached to the stipe on both sides, enlarging to form elongated sacs, and finally dehiscing. These sacs are limited along their margins by a filiform border like the solid axis of a Graptolite ; and it appears inconceivable that their function can have been other than reproductive.
At the meeting of the British Association in 1866, I drew attention to the occurrence in the Graptolitic rocks of Dumfriesshire of bodies essentially similar to those described by Hall; and I have since described them more fully and have adduced instances in which they are seen attached to
Zoological Position of the Graptolitidee. 59
the stipe of Graptolites Sedgwickit. These bodies differ from those noticed by Hall in being free in the later stages of their growth, instead of remaining permanently attached. ‘They are oval or bell-shaped, provided with a mucro or spine at one extremity, and surrounded by a strong filiform border, which ultimately ruptures. In many instances these bodies may be seen, when small, to be attached to the cellules of Graptolites Sedgwickii; and they appear sometimes to spring from the common canal, though this is rare and is perhaps accidental.
That these bodies are connected in some way with repro- duction appears to me to be beyond doubt. They resemble the “‘ gonophores”’ of the recent Hydrozoa in being external processes, In some cases permanently attached, in others ulti- mately detached; the likeness in form is also striking. They differ, however, in possessing a corneous envelope, so that, when detached, they were either simple free-floating organisms, or, if they possessed any independent locomotive power of their own, this must have been obtained by means of cilia or by some soft apparatus which would leave no traces of its existence. It 1s probable that the capsules did not contain the germs of Graptolites as we now find them in a fossil con- dition, as thought by Hall, but that their contents were the ova in their earliest stages. The ova would probably be libe- rated, on the dehiscence of the capsule, as minute ciliated free- swimming organisms, which subsequently and as a later de- velopment acquired a corneous envelope. With regard to other species of Graptolites, it may be looked upon as probable that the gonophores, if corneous, were attached to the sides of the polypites or to ‘ gonoblastidia,” whilst in other species, again, the gonophores were probably without any corneous test; so that the great majority of species will perhaps never be found in conjunction with ovarian capsules, either free or in connexion with the parent stipe. Judging, however, from analogy, there seem to be good grounds for the belief that the reproductive process in all the Graptolitidee was in all essential points identical with that of the Hydrozoa.
Mode of Evxistence.—As to the mode of existence of the Graptolitide, there can be no question that by far the greater number were free-floating or free-swimming organisms. In some species of Dichograpsus, Tetragrapsus, and Diplo- grapsus, there are the remains of a body (the “ disk”’) which, as | have aleady said, probably acted as a float, and finds its best homologue in the ‘‘ pneumatocyst” of the Physophoride. Other genera, as Graptolites, Phyllograpsus, Pleurograpsus, Retiolites, &c., were very possibly provided with “ necto- calyces” or “swimming-bells;”’ but these, of course, could
60 Dr. H. A. Nicholson on the Graptolitide.
never be preserved in a fossil condition. With regard to Dendrograpsus (Pl. III. figs. 16,17) and Callograpsus (two genera which more closely resemble the Sertularidg than any other), the probabilities are, perhaps, in favour of their having been fixed, though there is no decided evidence in support of this view ; and the same may be said of Dictyonema.
Allied forms.—The affinities of Grraptolites as regards other extinct organisms are few and uncertain. There exists, how- ever, one allied form (PI. III. fig. 19), which I described last year from the Dumfriesshire Shales under the name of Cory- novdes calicularis. In this the polypidom is in the form of a simple elongated tube, without any central axis, furnished at the base with two spines, and expanding distally into a toothed cup or “hydrotheca.” In general form Corynoides closely resembles some of the Corynidz or Tubularide ; but the ‘ hy- drosoma has certainly been free, and was never fixed by a hydrorhiza.” Whether Corynotdes should be included amongst the Graptolitide, or should be regarded as the type of a new order, is doubtful; but it is certainly allied to the Graptolites, and greatly strengthens the belief that the latter belong to the Hydrozoa.
Conclusion.—I have now endeavoured to show that the position of the Graptolitide amongst the Hydrozoa is sup- ported by the phenomena observed in their morphology, deve- lopment, and reproduction, in their mode of existence, and by the determination of allied forms. As to their exact place, it is certain that they cannot be referred to any existing order or even subclass of the Hydrozoa, and it is probable that they stand in the same relation to the recent Hydrozoa that the Trilobites do to the Crustacea. In the arrangement of their parts and in their mode of growth, as well as in the nature of their structural elements, they more or less resemble the Hydroid polypes; but they are widely separated by their free hydrosoma. On the other hand, they approximate to the oceanic Hydrozoa in the fact that they were free-floating organisms, and in the possession, by some forms, of an organ resembling a “float.” In the present state of our knowledge it seems, therefore, most advisable that the Graptolitide should be held to constitute a new subclass, which will hold an inter- mediate position between the fixed and oceanic Hydrozoa, and which might possibly, on the derivative theory of develop- ment, be considered the primitive stock from which the above existing sections of our living Hydrozoa have originally diverged.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE III.
Fig. 1. Graptolites sagittarius, Linn., nat. size: showing the radicle (a).
Prof. O. Heer on the Miocene Flora of the Polar Regions. 61
Fig. 2, Portion of the same, enlarged: showing the solid axis, the com- mon canal, and the cellules.
Fig. 3. Transverse section of Diplograpsus teretiusculus, His. : showing the axis as a transverse plate or partition.
Fig. 4. Diplograpsus teretiusculus, His., nat. size: showing the proximal extension of the axis, or radicle (a), and the distal extension (6).
Fig. 5, Central portion of Dichograpsus Logani, Hall, sp., from a speci- men collected by the author from the Skiddaw Slates: show- ing the branched funicle and the celluliferous stipes.
Fig. 6. Central disk and funicle of Dichograpsus octobrachiatus, Hall, sp. One of the divisions of the funicle (a) is shown prolonged into a celluliferous style (0).
Fig. 7. Diplograpsus, n.sp.: showing a disk at the proximal extremity. Collected by the author at Garple Linn, near Moffat.
Figs. 8, 9,10. Varieties of Diplograpsus bicornis, Hall. Fig. 8. Normal form. Fig. 9. Variety with a rudimentary disk or cup; col- lected by Prof. Harkness at GlenkiIn Burn, Dumfriesshire. Fig. 10. Variety with a fully developed disk, after Hall.
Fg. 11. Diplograpsus vesiculosus, n. sp.: showing the distal extremity of the axis expanded into a pointed vesicle. Collected by the author at Dobb’s Linn, near Moffat.
Fvg. 12. Germ of a monoprionidian Graptolite, enlarged.
Fig. 13. Germ of a diprionidian Graptolite, enlarged.
Fg. 14. Didymograpsus flaccidus, Hall, nat. size (recently described by Mr. W. Carruthers under the name of D. elegans). This form could obviously never have been attached, but must have been free.
Fig. 15, Helicograpsus (Graptolithus) gracilis, Hall, sp., nat. size: a, funicle: 6, b, celluliferous stipes. From a specimen collected by the author at Glenkiln Burn, Dumfriesshire.
Fig. 16, Non-~celluliferous stem, or funicle, of Dendrograpsus Hallianus, Prout, after Hall. This species may perhaps have been attached.
Fig. 17. Portion of the celluliferous branches of the same.
Fig. 18. Diplograpsus resembling D. teretiusculus, His., but furnished with two lateral spines in addition to the central radicle.
Fig. 19. Corynoides calicularis, Nich., enlarged. This form is allied to the Graptolites, but probably represents a different order.
Fig. 20. Tetragrapsus quadribrachiatus, Hail, sp.: showing the funicle, radicle, and celluliferous stipes.
X.—On the Miocene Flora of the Polar Regions. By Professor O. HEER *,
THE numerous expeditions sent some years ago into the arctic regions have been, in every respect, productive in a scientific point of view. The bold navigators who explored the polar regions, surmounting the greatest difficulties, used every effort to bring back whatever they supposed might pos- sess interest. Geology has had its share in the results of these researches. A considerable number of fossil plants
* Translated by W. 8. Dallas, F.L.S., from the ‘ Bibliothéque Univer- selle,’ Archives des Sciences, Nov. 25, 1867, pp. 218-251.
6 3 Prof. O. Heer on the Miocene Flora
derived from these explorations have been deposited in various museums, amongst others in those of Dublin, London, Copen- hagen, and Stockholm. These precious materials have been placed at my disposal; and thus I have been enabled to ex- amine a great quantity of fossil plants found im the north of Canada, near the Mackenzie River, on Banks Land, in North Greenland, in Iceland, and Spitzbergen. The study of these has led me to some important results with regard to the dis- tribution of plants during the epochs preceding that in which we live. I have also been able to draw from them some in- teresting conclusions as to the climate which was then enjoyed by the countries situated around the North Pole.
The Arctic fossil Flora, in the present state of our know- ledge, consists of 162 species. The Cryptogamia include 18 species, 9 of which are fine Ferns of large size, which pro- bably covered the soil of the forests. Among the others we must note some little Fungi, which then formed spots and small points upon the leaves of trees, as the analogous species do at the present day. Among the Phanerogamia we find 31 species of Coniferee, 14 species of Monocotyledons, and 99 species of Dicotyledons. Judging of these from the allied species in existing nature, 78 of them were trees, and 50 shrubs. Thus, therefore, 128 species of ligneous plants were then dif- fused over the polar regions. Among the Conifere we remark Hpicee, Junipers, and Pines, most of which resemble American species. One of the most remarkable species is the Pinus MacClurit, very nearly related to Pinus alba of Canada. Of this, MacClure and his companions brought back cones ob- tained from Banks Land; and they observed the trunk in the remarkable mountains of fossil wood discovered in that country. The Miocene beds of Iceland have furnished seven species belonging to Pines or Junipers. The Sequoie (Wel- lingtonias) are still more abundant than the pines; this genus played a very important part in the Miocene period, and is found fossil in Europe, Asia, and America. At the present day it includes only two species (Sequoia sempervirens and S. gigantea), confined exclusively to California. ‘These are the last representatives of this remarkable genus, to which belong the largest trees in the world. We find four species of it in the Miocene beds of the polar regions, three of which also occur at the same level in Central Europe. At this period Sequoia Langsdorfii was the most abundant tree in the north of Greenland; and we are acquainted not only with its branches and their leaves, but also with its flowers, cones, and seeds. It occurs also in the north of Canada, in Vancouver’s Island, Germany, Switzerland, and Italy, and is very nearly al-
of the Polar Regions. 63
lied to S. sempervirens, from which it is distinguished only by the size of its cones, which are larger and composed of more scales. Sequoia Sternbergii, which was abundant in Iceland, is very nearly related to S. gigantea; whilst S. Couttsia, which is found in Greenland, at Disco and Ataneverdlak, is intermediate between S. Langsdorffii and S. Sternbergit. The family of the Cypresses is richly represented by three genera— Taxodium, Thujopsis, and Glyptostrobus. The latter two are still in existence in Japan; the Taxodia occur in North America. Glyptostrobus europeus usually accompanies the Sequoia Langsdorffit, as also does Taxodium dubium, of which the branches, leaves, and cones were discovered at Atane- verdlak, and which has also been found ou Spitzbergen, at about 78° N. latitude. Thujopsis ewropea is much rarer; its elegant branches have been found in North Greenland, and they are identical with those obtained from amber and at Armillan (near Narbonne).
Among the Taxinee we remark a Salisburta from Green- land; this genus now occurs in the wild state only in Japan.
The number of leafy trees is so considerable that we can only indicate a few species. Several of them resemble trees of our countries; such are the Beeches and Chestnuts, which are still found in North Greenland at 70° N. latitude. A species of Beech (Fagus Deucalionis) is extremely near our common Beech (Hagus sylvatica) ; the leaves are of the same form and dimensions, and have the same nervures, but they are denticulated only at the extremity. This tree was, ap- parently, diffused through all the northern regions, since we meet with it in Greenland, Iceland, and Spitzbergen. The Oaks are still more varied; we count eight species in Green- land, most of them having large, elegantly denticulated leaves ; they have some relation to American species. One of them (Quercus Olafsoni), which may be traced from the north of Canada to Greenland and Spitzbergen, is the analogue of Quercus prinus of the United States. A Platanus (P. ace- roides) was also spread over all these countries; it is even met with in the Hisfjord in Spitzbergen. The Poplars fur- nish a still greater number of individuals than the genera just cited. ‘T'wo species (Populus Richardsoni and P. arctica), with Sequoia Langsdorffii, were the commonest trees of the polar zone. We can trace them from the Mackenzie to Spitzbergen. The Willows are very rare, which may well surprise us when we consider that they now form one-fourth of the woody plants of the arctic zone. The Birches were abundant in Iceland, where we also remark a fine species of Tulip-tree and a Maple (Acer otopteryx). In Greenland we find a Walnut, a Mag-
64 Prof. O. Heer on the Miocene Flora
nolia with coriaceous leaves (MM. Inglefieldi), and a Plum (Pru- nus Scotti?) ; and in Spitzbergen a large-leaved Lime-tree (Tila Malmgrent). Side by side with these trees, which are analo- gous to those of the present epoch, we observe several excep- tional forms, from the presence of which it is difficult to draw any conclusions. One of these species, which possesses large coriaceous leaves (Daphnogene Kanii), probably belongs to the family Laurinez ; four others (Macclintockia and Hahea) are probably Proteacez. It is difficult to judge what would have been the habit of these plants. With regard to others, however, analogy indicates that, in all probability,they were shrubs. Thus we find a Nut-tree (Corylus MacQuarrit) which was diffused through all the polar regions, and occurred in Spitzbergen at 78° N. latitude, as also a species of Alder (Alnus Kefersteinit). From Greenland we have species of Rhamnus, Paliurus, Cor- nus, Ilex, Crategus, Andromeda, and Myrica, which ascend to 70° N. latitude. Sarmentose plants were not wanting ; a species of Ivy (Hedera MacClurii) has been found on the shores of the Mackenzie, and of Vines two species in Greenland, and one in Iceland: these species approach certain American Vines. It is not difficult to form an idea of the vegetation of the polar regions, at the Miocene epoch, from the indications which we have just given. It consisted of forests of very various leaty and resinous trees, many of which had large leaves of very diverse forms; vines and ivy entwined these with their branches; and beneath their shade grew numerous shrubs and elegant ferns.
What a contrast between this picture and that presented to us by these countries in their present state! Now-a-days Green- land is nothing but an immense glacier, which covers the whole country and sends even into southern latitudes mountains of ice which cool the climate; we can scarcely say that a narrow belt along the shores is freed in summer and enabled to cover itself with a little vegetation. In the Miocene period the limit of Limes, Taxodia, and Platani was at 79° N. latitude; that of the Pines and Poplars, if we may judge from what we see in the present day, must have attained the pole, or at least the lands nearest to it; for they advance at present 15° further to the north than the Planes. It is a natural conclusion from this, that the extreme limit of trees then followed a lme very different from that which we can trace at the present day: it now follows the isothermal line which gives a mean of 10° C. (= 50° F.) in July—that is to say, about 67° N. latitude; so that it scarcely passes the polar circle, whilst then it reached the pole itself.
This fact alone indicates that the climate was very different.
of the Polar Regions. 65
We may add other proofs to confirm our assertion. From the character of the flora of Spitzbergen at the Miocene period we may conclude that under 79° N. latitude the mean tempe- rature of the year was 5° C. (= 41° F.); at the same epoch that of Switzerland was 21° C. (= 69°°8 F.), judging from the analogy of floras. ‘There is consequently a difference of 16° C. (= 28°°8 F.) ; and for each degree of latitude the mean temperature has fallen 0°5 C. (= 0°9 F.) From this it fol- lows that at Spitzbergen, at 78° N. latitude, the mean was 5°°5 C. (= 41°9 F.), im Greenland, at 70°, it was 9°°5 ©, (= 49°1 F’.), and in Iceland and on the Mackenzie, in latitude 65°, it was 11°55 C. (=52°7 F.) These data suffice to explain the character of the flora of this period *,
The difference of temperature between Switzerland, in N. lat. 47° (brought by calculation to that of the sea-level), and Spitzbergen, in N. lat. 78°, is at present 20°-6 C. (=37°-08 F.), which gives a diminution of 0°66 C. (=1°2 F.) for each degree of latitude. It is therefore evident that at the Miocene epoch the temperature was much more uniform, and that the mean heat diminished much more gradually in proportion as the pole was approached, so that then the isothermal line of 0° (=32° F.) fell upon the pole, whilst now it is situated under 58° N.
It has been asserted that at the Miocene epoch currents might transport wood and vegetable remains to great distances, as is the case now, and that it is very possible that the plants which we find in the fossil state in the deposits of the polar regions may have been carried there in an analogous manner, and may not have lived on the soil where we find their remains. This notion cannot be admitted, as will be easily seen if we consider :—1, the perfect preservation of the leaves; 2, the enormous accumulation of fossil plants in the beds of siderolitic iron-ore in Greenland, associated with great deposits of lignites; 8, the fact that insects are found with the plants; and, 4, the presence of beech-leaves just issued from the bud and still folded, as well as that of flowers, seeds, and fruits associated with the leaves, Certain seeds are found arranged in the same manner as in the berry which protected them ; this evidently indicates that the berry itself was buried in the mud. Now it is clear that a berry could not be carried by the waves to great distances.
Whoever will examine, without preconceived ideas, the
* For further details upon this subject consult the ‘ Flore fossile des Régions polaires,’ by Prof. O. Heer (Zurich, 1867), in which all the plants of the Miocene epoch discovered in these countries are described and figured.
Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 4. Vol.i. 5
66 Prof. O. Heer on the Miocene Flora
beautiful and varied fossil plants which fill the rocks of Atane- verdlak in Greenland, will be convinced that these plants can- not have come from a great distance. As to the fossil plants of Spitzbergen, it is very evident that they were not brought by marine currents, as we find them in freshwater deposits.
It appears certain, therefore, that at the Miocene epoch the temperature of the polar regions was much higher than in our day; and we are naturally led to inquire what are the causes which may have brought about such a change. We cannot admit the supposition of a displacement of the poles, even regarding it in the same way as Mr. Evans, who has re- cently maintained this theory. Indeed it is a certain fact that we remark the same phenomena all round the terrestrial globe, not only in the polar zone, but also under southern latitudes. No direct observation seems to us to confirm this hypothesis. We regard as much more important the theory according to which climatic modifications would coincide with modifica- tions in the distribution of the seas and continents upon the surface of the globe. At present the extent of the seas is twice and a half that of the solid earth, and the continents are arranged in much more considerable masses in the northern hemisphere, and especially beyond the tropic. This condition is not normal. If, instead of so unequal a distribution, the lands and seas were equally distributed in all the zones, the temperate and glacial zones would enjoy a climate warmer than at present. Nevertheless, even supposing the most favourable distribution, we should not succeed in producing, between 70° and 79° N. latitude, a temperature sufficient for the development of a flora like that of which the existence in these regions during the Miocene period has just been in- dicated, Suppose all the continents united im the neighbour- hood of the equator, and only a few islands left in the northern regions,—these would enjoy the highest mean temperature to which they could attain, their winters would be compara- tively very mild, and yet the heat of the sun could not be suf- ficient between 70° and 80° N. lat. to allow of the development of a vegetation so rich as that of which we find the traces. Now it is certain that in the Miocene period there was a great extent of solid land in the temperate zone, and even in the polar regions, as is proved to us by the extension of several species of the Miocene flora, which we can follow from the Mackenzie to Spitzbergen.
The explanation of the climatic changes which the study of fossils reveals to us, has been sought in the fact that the eradual cooling of the mass of the globe must necessarily pro- duce a gradual diminution of temperature. This cause may certainly have acted in the most ancient periods; but the Mio-
of the Polar Regions. 67
cene epoch is too nearly approximate to our own to allow of our attributing to it, with any probability, the difference of temperature now indicated.
It seems to us to follow, from the preceding considerations, that it is from the study of phenomena of another kind that we must obtain the solution of the problem that we seek. Let us first examine, in the series of cosmical phenomena, the question of the changes which may have taken place in the position of the earth relatively tothe sun. From the point of view which now. engages our attention, a great importance has been quite re- cently attached to the periodical modifications of the eccen- tricity of the ellipse which is annually traversed by the earth. The form of this ellipse is modified within certain limits in the course of ages. At present it approaches a circle ; in 23,900 years its eccentricity will have attained its minimum; then the orbit will again tend to acquire a more elongated form. The mean distance from the earth to the sun is 91,400,000 miles ; when the eccentricity of the ellipse is at its maximum it has +4 of this length, when it is at its minimum 54;; in the former case the earth departs from the sun 14,500,000 miles more than in the second case. At present the linear value of the eccentricity is three millions of miles. It must also be observed that, at present, the earth is nearest to the sun (at the perihelion) during the winter of the northern hemisphere, whilst in the summer it is furthest from it (at the aphelion). Now the relative position of the line of apsides and of that of the solstices is likewise subjected to a movement of revolution which is accomplished in 21,000 years. In about 10,000 years the summer of the northern hemisphere will fall at the period when the earth is nearest to the sun, and its winter at that when it is most distant. Of course the contrary will take place in the southern hemisphere.
It is assumed that during the periods when the eccentricity of the orbit of the earth approaches its maximum, when the perihelion coincides with the winter solstice, the northern hemisphere must enjoy a shorter and warmer winter, whilst the summer is longer and cooler. During this time the oppo- site is the case in the southern hemisphere. Its winter is longer and colder, its summer hotter and shorter, because the winter of this hemisphere corresponds with the greatest dis- tance from the sun. Mr. Croll supposes that during this long and cold winter so great a quantity of ice must have been accumulated, that the summer following it (which, although hot, was short) had not the power to melt it entirely, and that it is at this epoch that we must place the glacial period. In the northern hemisphere, on the contrary, there would have
68 Prof. O. Heer on thé Miocene Flora
been a continual spring, the summer being long and cool, and the winter short and warm. Mr. Stones has calculated that we must go back 850,000 years to reach the epoch at which the eccentricity of the orbit of the earth attained its maximum value, at the same time that the aphelion coincided exactly with the winter solstice in the northern hemisphere. The winter would then have lasted thirty-six days longer; and as it is at this period that the greatest quantity of ice and snow would have been formed, Lyell is inclined to place in it the glacial epoch. But 900,000 years ago, on the other hand, the orbit ofthe earth would have most nearly approached the circular form, and from this would have resulted a complete change of climatic conditions.
All these speculative theories are certainly ingenious, but it must be remarked that they have not a solid basis; in fact we still only very imperfectly know what is the extent of the action which might be exerted upon the power of the rays of the sun by the distance which they traversed to arrive at the éarth. lLiyell has pointed out, with reason, that according to Dove’s calculation the earth is hotter in July (that is to say, at the moment when it is most distant from the sun) than in December (when it most nearly approaches it). The cause of this is the unequal distribution of sea and land in the two hemispheres, from which it results that the northern hemi- spliere has a hotter summer, even when the earth is nearest to the sun during the summer of the southern hemisphere. From this fact we may conclude that the mode of distribution of the sea and land on the surface of the globe exerts a greater in- fluence upon the climate of each hemisphere than that which can result from the greater or less eccentricity combined with the position of the line of the apsides. On the other hand, however, as Lyell has admirably denionstrated, these two causes, by the combination of their effects, may have had an extremely im- portant influence upon the changes of climate which the observed facts enable us to demonstrate.
It is also possible that the action of the sun has not always been the same; for, by the observation of its spots, we know that great modifications take place upon its surface, whence the possibility of a change in the intensity of the solar rays.
To all these considerations this one may be added :—The sun is not alone in the vault of heaven; millions of celestial bodies likewise shine there and diffuse their light and heat into space. Why, then, may we not suppose that the different regions of space have not all the same temperature? The mathematician Poisson put forward this idea, by calling atten- tion to the fact that the number of stars is so great that they form, as it were, a continuous vault. We also know that the
of the Polar Regions. 69
sun with its planets does not always occupy the same position in space ; it probably moves round a fixed star situated at an infinitely great distance. Starting from these data, and sup- posing that the temperature of the different regions of space is not the same throughout, we should find a very simple explanation of the climatic phenomena which have been men- tioned. Thus, if at the Miocene epoch the sun and its planetary system were in a region of space hotter than that in which they now move, this heat must have exerted an influ- ence upon all parts of the terrestrial globe, but the effect must have been most marked in the glacial and temperate zones. If during this immense revolution, or solar year, hot periods succeed to colder ones, or vice vers@, we may by analogy as- similate the Miocene period to its summer, the glacial period to its winter, and the present period to its spring. It is evi- dent that we must accept the idea of a course of prodigious length, the extent of which our minds cannot yet conceive. A time will no doubt come when we shall succeed in calculating it; and just as we now know the orbit of the earth, future generations may perhaps arrive at a sufficiently accurate know- ledge of the orbit of the sun.
Our minds are confused, it is true, in presence of these spaces and periods which to us appear infinite; but this arises from the smallness of the scale according to which we measure space and time, as may be shown by a simple comparison. Suppose the duration of the life of man to be a single day; those born in winter could only know by tradition that there was formerly a time when it was hotter, and that this time would return after a long series of generations. ‘The opposite would be the case with those born in summer. ‘To these men of a day, a year would be a period of excessive length, since it would in- clude 365 generations. Now the actual duration of human life corresponds not to a day, but perhaps scarcely to a minute of this great solar year; what inhabitant of the earth can ever know its phases? If he cannot conceive them with his bodily eye, he may do so at least with the assistance of his thought, with the aid of his intellect, which enables him to penetrate the obscurity of the past, and to coordinate the phe- nomena which have been accomplished in the course of suc- cessive periods. ‘The eye of his mind penetrates into the most distant times, as into the remotest spaces of the celestial vault. If the body of man is small in contrast to the immensity of nature, if his life is short in presence of the infinite duration of time, what is not the grandeur and power of his mind, which carries him beyond the course of ages and gives him to understand that in his perishable envelope is deposited the germ of immortality !
70 Mr. A. G. Butler on Papilio Cocytus.
XI—Remarks upon the Papilio Cocytus of Fabricius and its distinctness from the Adohias Cocytus of Authors. By A. G. But er, F.Z.8.
In the fifth volume of the ‘ Zoological Journal,’ pp. 67, 68 (1835), Dr. Horsfield has noticed the distinctness of the Co- cyta ot Fabricius’s ‘Entomologia Systematica’ from the Co- cytus of his ‘ Mantissa;’ he moreover figures a species, appa- rently identical with the former, under the more distinctive name of Cocytina*. It is unfortunate that he should not have figured an East-Indian example, as the Sumatran form now proves to be a distinct species.
I find, by referrmg to the ‘Genera of Diurnal Lepidoptera,’ p- 291. no. 9 (1850), that Adolias Cocytus is stated to be in the collection of the British Museum from North Indiat,—a species which in some points agrees with the typical descrip- tion beg mistaken for that insect. Mr. Moore, in his mono- graph of Adolias (Trans. Ent. Soc. vol. v. p. 76. n. 28: 1859), evidently intends the same species, which he quotes as from North and South India.
On referring to the type of P. Cocytus in the Banksian col- lection, I find that it is totally distinct from the above-men- tioned species. It is a good deal faded; but the pale band of the hind wings still shows a bluish tinge towards the apex, and in the right-hand wing, which lies behind the fore wing, and has consequently had more protection, there is a distinct flush of bluish violet, indicating that the original colour of the band was blue, and not ash-coloured as stated by Fabricius. The underside of the wings is entirely ochreous, with a submarginal lunulate interrupted band, very indistinct in the hind wings (“ striga postica fusca,” Fabr.), the apex of the fore wings also being tipped with dark fuscous; the fore-wing cell has the usual liture ; but in the hind wings they are scarcely indicated. Fabricius describes the underside of the wings as ‘ omnes cinerascentes ;’’ but there is now no indication of such colora- tion in the type; and I think, considering the careless manner in which many of the Fabrician descriptions were put together, that it is exceedingly likely that this is an error.
We have a specimen of a species from Assam, and a second without a locality, which only differ from the type in having the apex of the fore wing slightly less falcate, the blue mar- ginal band rather narrower, and the underside of the fore wing with a violet nebulous streak along its outer margin: there
* Vollenhoven has figured a species near Cocytina from Java (Tijd- schrift voor Entomologie, vol. y. pl. 12. figs. 8,4) under the name of Blume.
+ The original locality (Siam) is also quoted.
Bibliographical Notice. 71
can, therefore, be little doubt that the true description of Cocytus will be as follows :—
Adolias Cocytus, Fabricius.
3. Alis integerrimis falcatis, supra nigro-fuscis, lineolis discoideis nigris, margine externo viridi-cweruleo extus violascente, posti- cis lato: subtus omnibus ochreis ; anticis lineolis quinque discoi- deis, striga sexlunulata submarginali, nebula marginali vio- lacea; posticis lineolis basalibus vix distinguendis, striga sub- marginali lunulata fusca.
Exp. alar. unc. 2;5-2,9..
The Indian species will of course have to be described ; and I therefore propose for it the name of A. lepidea.
Adolias lepidea, sp. nov.
Adolias Cocyta, E. Doubleday, List Lep. Brit. Mus. i. p. 104 (1844), but not of Fabricius.
Adolias Cocytus, Westwood in Gen. Diurn. Lepid. p. 291. no. 9 (1850) ; F. Moore, Monog. Adol., Trans. Ent. Soc. v. p. 76. no. 28 (1859).
Alz supra maris nigro-fusce, feminze fuscee; disco medio paulum pallidiore ; margine externo pallido cinereo-fusco, margine ex- terno femine fuscescente, lituris discoideis nigris.
Alz subtus multo pallidiores, maris castaneo-fusce, feminse ochraceze disco medio ochreo: posticee extus albicantes; striga maculari submarginali, altera postmedia angulari lunulata, posticis ochra- ceis ; lituris discoideis nigris: antic margine externo violas- cente.
Exp. alar. une. 213-33.
3 3, North India. ¢ var., South India. B.M.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICE.
Figures of Characteristic British Fossils ; with Descriptive Remarks. By Wit1am Herirer Batty, F.L.S., F.G.8., &e. Part I., pages i-xxiv & 1-30; Plates IX. 8vo. London: Van Voorst, 1867.
Ts first instalment of a work of good promise, well planned and well begun, is very acceptable to geologists, both amateur and pro- fessional. The heavy task that lies before the geological inquirer who wishes to set eyes on any large group of fossils peculiar to a system of strata often checks his progress, and is always a trouble. He may have recourse to Bronn’s comprehensive ‘ Lethzea geognos- tica,’ but it is eumbrous, expensive, and German; nor does it place before him the fossils of the several ‘‘ formations ”’ of each geological “system,” as is proposed to be done in the work before us. The still more voluminous ‘ Paléontologie francaise’ is further beyond his requirements, being arranged to give every known species in de-
72 Bibliographical Notice.
tail. Geinitz, Quenstedt, and others have given geologists general works on fossils; but they fail to be of use to the English geo- logist, for several reasons. Prof. Owen’s ‘ Paleontology’ is of too special a character. To help those, then, who wish to be acquainted with British Fossils and their chief peculiarities in character and distribution, Mr. Baily comes forward with a clear and useful guide, supplied with the latest information.
For educational purposes this book is well adapted, being an aid both to teacher and student; and for the practical geologist it is a desirable vade mecum, reminding him of the typical fossils of every stage of strata, whether they are characteristic by peculiarity or by relative abundance.
The work will consist mainly of lithographic plates, accompanied by “ explanations” and “descriptive remarks.” In each part, pub- lished at short intervals, there will be ten plates of figures; and by means of these ‘it is intended to present to the eye faithful copies of the usual and most important fossils found in or characterizing the various stratigraphical divisions into which fossiliferous rocks are arranged by the geologist, with a view to relieve the mind from the necessity of studying the whole series of extinct forms of organic life, now known as fossils, and so that the general aspect of each particular group may be seen at a glance, conveying, it is presumed, with the explanatory remarks, sufficient information for all ordinary purposes, and supplying an essential aid in the identification of strata.”
We really believe that these plates will contain exact representa- tions of both the most remarkable and the most common of fossils (many from original specimens), knowing that the author has had a long experience as naturalist, draughtsman, and paleontologist ; and indeed this first set of the plates, with their explanations, fully illus- trate his talent and conscientious care. We must remark, however, that some of the plates are “ woolly” in appearance, and that the printer’s work might be better; nevertheless there are but very few real errata.
The “descriptive remarks” in this first Part comprise:—1l. A succinct note on Paleontological Geology. 2. A table of the Inver- tebrate portion of the animal kingdom,—imperfect, however, and very loosely put together. 3. A “ table of the Fossiliferous or Strati- fied Rocks in the order of their superposition ” (mainly after that in the Geological Survey Museum Catalogue), which is adapted for Eng- land and Wales only, except that the “Cambrian” of Ireland is inserted—that of Scotland and the Laurentian strata of Scotland and the Lewis being omitted. 4. Notes on the assemblage of Fossils of the Cambrian rocks, giving scant credit to the crustacean Paleo- ~ pyge, though in Plate 2 its head is figured as well as its tail. The Oldhamiz, however, are here well illustrated, some of their living - analogues being neatly engraved on wood; and others might have been added, if the author had thought enough of filamentous Sea- weeds and of the Calciferous Alge or ‘Corallines” (a name he misapplies to the Hydrozoa throughout); nor does he seem to have
Miscellaneous. 73
studied Unger’s memoir treating of the subject. 5. The Silurian assemblage of Fossils, elucidated with the description of a Trilobite ; and then follow (6) notes on the Fossils of the Lower Silurian rocks, (7) those of the Lingula-beds ; (8) of the Tremadoc Slate; and (9) of the Llandeilo Flags; and here we have the modern Ceelenterate analogues of the Graptolite well shown in woodcuts; but some would like to have their Polyzoan allies shown also. But these are vexed questions; and altogether, among the fossils of doubtful alliances Mr. Baily walks delicately; nevertheless he might have been bolder in referring more of the so-called Annelids and Fucoids to crustacean galleries and tracks (as our correspondent Mr. Albany Hancock indicated long ago); and Rebeiria (not Ribierta) might also have gone over to the Crustaceans, as Mr. Salter has suggested. So much for a weak point or two ;.but we must add that, as this excellent work is intended for amateurs and students, as well as for experts, it would have been advantageous to them if the author had given the meanings of the names of the genera and species. This would be generally of real use in indicating the characters, conditions, or history of the things named; and it would almost always serve in some way, by association of ideas, to enable the reader and thinker to remember both names and things.
A systematic statement as to the relative abundance or peculiar occurrence of the several fossils figured would also greatly enhance the value of this work.
With Plate 10 we enter upon the fossils of the Bala-Caradoc formation ; and we look forward with pleasure to the illustration of the other principal groups of organic remains in this convenient shape, which is uniform with Professor Morris’s well-known ‘ Cata- logue of British Fossils.’
MISCELLANEOUS.
On the Structure of the Eye in the Gasteropoda, and on the Develop- ment of the Eyes in the Animal series. By V. Henszn.
Various authors have recently paid attention to the structure of the eye in the Gasteropoda, and more especially to that of the retina ; among them are MM. Leydig, Keferstein, Krohn, Hensen, and Babouchine. The investigations of these naturalists have clearly shown that the retina of the Mollusca is divided into an outer and an inner layer, separated by a thin stratum of pigment. But all these authors do not agree as to the parts of this retina which are directly impressed by the luminous waves. Some, particularly M. Hensen, regard the inner layer as sensible to light; others, on the contrary, consider it to be insensible, and that the luminous rays must pass through interstices of the pigment in order to irritate the outer layer of the retina.
M. Hensen indicates that, in certain theories of vision proposed by the most recent authors, the pigment plays an inadmissible part. Thus, for example, the heat reflected by the pigment has been ad-
Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.4. Vol.i. 6
74 Miscellaneous.
duced to explain the phenomenon of vision. As the author points out, the case of albinos shows that luminous perceptions do not cease when the pigment is absent; and we do not know any case in which the pigment is absolutely necessary for the perception of light. The pigment really fulfils two functions. In the first place it absorbs the superfluous light and prevents it from being reflected upon other parts of the retina; and it arrests all the luminous rays which may penetrate into the eye by any other road but the pupil, whether through the cornea or the sclerotic. This second function is of particularly great importance in the Mollusca. In many of these (for example, in the Heteropoda) the parts surrounding the eye are perfectly transparent; and even in the snails the ommato- phore is sufficiently transparent to allow us sometimes to see the outer layer of the retina without any difficulty. The luminous rays may, therefore, strike this outer layer of the retina in all directions ; and from this M. Hensen justly concludes that it cannot be sensitive to light. Sensibility to luminous rays consequently appears to be peculiar to the inner layer, accessible only to the rays which have passed through the erystalline. This layer alone is com- parable to the stratum of bacilli in the Vertebrata.
In comparing the eyes of the Mollusca with those of other animals, M. Hensen directs attention to the difficulty resulting from the variable meanings of terms. The words eye, retina, iris have acquired a perfectly definite physiological sense; but this is not the case with the words sclerotic, cornea, and choroid, because they are used to designate organs with various and still ill-defined functions. Thus, for example, the sclerotic serves at once as the protective en- velope of the eye, as the support of the cornea, and'as the basis for the attachment of muscles, without its being possible to say that any one of these functions is more essential than the rest. In the Vertebrata the sclerotic and the neurilemma of the optic nerve are justly regarded as prolongations of the dura mater. This morpho- logical character ought, apparently, to be the best guide in the in- vestigation of the homologies of the sclerotic; but when we come to animals in which the eyes are not formed as if by a budding of the brain, and in which we can find no dura mater, it becomes very difficult any longer to speak of a sclerotic.
With regard to the structure of the retina there is, between the Vertebrata and the Invertebrata, a chasm which seems to defy all homologies. Thus in the former the bacilli form the outer layer of the retina; in the latter they form its inner layer. And yet it is remarkable that, notwithstanding this fundamental difference in the typical organization of the essential part of the organ of sight, the uniformity of organization persists in the accessory organs. Thus, as M. Hensen remarks, in the Cephalopoda, the crystalline continues to be an epithelial production, resulting from an invagi- nation of the skin, as in the Vertebrata. In these higher Mollusca there also exist an iris, a cornea, and eyelids—organs which, it is true, disappear one after the other in this class of animals. The sclerotic appears as if divided into fragments. One portion forms the
Miscellaneous. tea
outer capsule of the eye, and bears the cornea: another more closely envelopes the retina; it is cartilaginous, serves for the attachment of the muscles of the eye, and reminds us of the sclerotic ring of birds and reptiles. Even in the Nautili, however, there no longer remain any of these homologous parts of the sclerotic. In the other Mol- lusca it would be very difficult to say what we are to regard as the sclerotic. It is equally impossible to distinguish a cornea in them. We cannot say, indeed, that the essential character of the cornea is its being the first refractive medium in the eye. The serpents teach us the opposite of this, since in them the first refractive medium is formed by the eyelids. Moreover, in a great number of Mollusca, the region which is usually designated by the name of the cornea does not present any greater transparency than the rest of the en- velopes of the eye.
In the Vertebrata, on the contrary, the cornea has a very definite meaning, especially as, from the observations of M. Hensen, it pre- sents a development swi generis. In the embryo, immediately after the invagination of the crystalline, this anatomist has seen the cornea appear as a very delicate basilar membrane of the epithelium. As long as the crystalline still contains a cavity there exists between it and the cornea, in front of the pupillar membrane, a sort of gela- tinous tissue, exactly similar to that of the vitreous body at the same embryonic period. Neither the sclerotic nor the choroid has any connexion with a similar tissue.
It is equally difficult to determine the homologue of the choroid in the Mollusca. In the Vertebrata this membrane is at once vas- cular and pigmentary. The concordant investigations of MM. Kol- liker, Hensen, Schultze, and Steinlin show clearly that the black epithelium of the choroid is in reality a dependency of the retina ; it