,\ ^ SCJBNCB Gossm :>^HV., V H ARDWICKE'S science-Gossip 1889. HARDWICKE'S cietu:^=Ol0Ssi^: AN ILLUSTRATED MEDIUM OF INTERCHANGE AND GOSSIP FOR STUDENTS AND LOVERS OF NATURE. EDITED BY Dr. J. E. TAYLOR, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S.I., HON. MEMBER OF THE MANCHESTER LITERARY CLUB, OF THE NORWICH GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY, OF THE MARYPORT SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY, OF THE ROTHERHAM LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY, OF THE NORWICH SCIENCE-GOSSIP CLUB, OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AUSTRALASIA, OF THE VICTORIAN FIELD NATURALISTS* CLUB, ETC. ETC. VOLUME XXY. Uontion ; CHATTO AND WINDUS, PICCADILLY. 1889. [A// rights reserved.^ LONDON : PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS. j 0 L 0 d PREFACE. THE present is the Twenty-fifth Annual Volume of our Magazine. There is no other magazine of popular science which equals the record. A quarter of a century is a long period in the history of magazine literature. It beholds the rise and fall and keen com- petition of many rivals. The law of the " Survival of the Fittest " is as true among literary and scientific competitors as in the world of living things. What an enormous advance Science has made within the period comprehended by the lifetime of SCIENCE-GOSSIP ! There is, perhaps, no previous quarter of a century equal to it in the whole history of scientific research. Our past volumes record this progress — all the more faithfully because it was recorded almost unconscious of the fact that an act of evolution was going on. Perhaps one of the most striking features in the scientific history of the last twenty-five years is its increased democratic character. It belongs to the people, without any reference to rank, wealth, or influence. For years, in our columns, peers and peasants have discussed natural history subjects on common and equal ground. Science has sprung from the people, and belongs to the people. Apart from its increasing national economic importance, it is one of their chief intellectual delights. For one person who cared enough about the multitudinous objects of nature to enquire into them a quarter of a century ago, there are at least ten now. It has always been our aim to meet this growing and spreading love of Science among those who follow it for the love of it. On PREFACE. this account, from time to time, we have included new subjects of research and study. Next year we propose devoting a special department to PHOTO- GRAPHY. That charming branch of amateur and holiday science is capable of much good service in the cause of natural history. Photo-micrography is already an adjunct of microscopical research ; and its splendid adaptation to the lantern for lecturing purposes is admitted by all who have taken advantage of it. Photography has many a little side path unentered. If it only gave artists real studies of plants for use in their foregrounds, rocks and trees for their landscapes, and clouds for their skies, and thus abolished the conventional kinds hitherto in use — it would be a great gain to Art. We therefore cordially invite our readers to assist us in forming and carrying on each month a Department devoted to Photography, especially so far as the latter affects Natural Science. It is cheering to the Editor to receive from time to time the kindly encouragement and congratulations of contributors and sub- scribers. He asks all his allies to assist in making SciENCE-GossiP known among their friends. An increased circulation means increased efficiency. He is grateful for the kindly sympathy and help of the past year. The conduction of the journal brings him into contact with troops of friends, to each of whom he appeals for increased assistance. Perhaps the best evidence of the bibliographical value of SciENCE- GOSSIP is the fact that many of the back numbers of years ago are asked for at double the price they were published. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. i^CISTHSSUMBBLLA, l8o jEdogonium, 8i Ananchytes ovata, ii(j Anafickyies ovaia, Flint cast of, 227 Animalcules from Scum, 204 Antlers, Growth of, 29 Bass, The, 61 Bass, Head of, 62 Bonnet-Monkey, 85 Boxes for Slides, 244 Cage for Marmosets, etc., 185 Cinnamon, The, 149 Coca, 130 Diagram showing the Nuclear Divj. SIGN, 203 Discorbina Globularis, 38 Distyla Fltxilis, 267 Eel, Vinegar, 52 Egg of Succinea Pfeifferi, aot Flower of Coca, 148 Fly-catcher, Spotted, 197 Foramlnifera, 12 Formica Ru/a, Home of, 198 Fossil Fresh-water Shells, 57 Galerites Albogalerus, 229 Garcinia Mangostana, 177 Ginger Plant, 250 Globba Bulbi/era, 274 Helix Hortensis, Hermaphrodite Gland of, 201 Holotkuria Bohadsckia, Eggs of, 203 Karyokinesis, 202 LoFODEN Isles, 225 Luton, Chalk on road at, 228 Luton, Lane at, 228 Luton, Pit at, 228 Manihot Utilissinta, iix Marigold, Double, 253 Micraster, 229 Microscope, accessories to, 133.134 Monkey-nuts, 157 Monkey, Pole and Barrel for, 157 Mounting Clips, pressureless, 271 Nutmeg, 220 Organisms in Chemical Solutions, 128 Paraguay Tea, 151 Parasmilia Centralis, 229 Peneroplts, 36 Peregrine Falcon, 113 Philodina Tubercnlaia, 266 Plan of Melbourne Botanic Gardens, 100 Polysiomella Crispa, 36 Pterodina triincata, 104 Puffin, 112 Rana, Lungs of, 252 Rotalia, 38 Rotifer, A, 164 Rotifer, Curious, 154 Rotifers, Little-known, 104 Salvadora Persica, 274 Schizanthus Pinnati/olius, 172 Shark's Teeth, on Mounting, 80 Stephanops Intermedius, 179 Strychnos nux Vomica, 176 Tetractinellid Spicules, 229 Trichodina Mitra, 125 Ventriculitk, 228 Water-rat, Parasite of, 6 White Ants, 76 Wood Ants, 32 Worm, Turbellarian, 204 RUDIMENTS AND THE IDEAL FORM. By NINA F. LAYARD. N reply to two papers in the October issue of SciENCE- GossiF, referring to my articles on "Rudimentary Organs," I will first notice Dr, William Smith's explanation of the word " rudimen- tary," as quoted l,y Mr. A. H. Swinton, though it does not mate- lially differ from the meanings given by other good lexicograph- ers. He says : "It is derived from the Latin adjective ntdis, in a natural state, not improved by art," &c. As a natural state is, according to Dr. Webster, a "normal " state, and a normal state is one in which the organ "performs its proper functions," this appears to disallow Mr. Darwin's expressed explana- tion of his own use of the word in a letter to C. Lyell, 1859. "An organ," he says, " should not be called rudimentary, unless it be useless." This characteris- tic he proceeds to contrast with that of a nascent organ, "which though little developed, as it has to be developed, must be useful," &c. Notwithstanding, however, the. assertion, that that which is properly called "rudimentary" is incapable of development, we find an instance in the " Descent of Man," in which the author has himself accidentally fallen into the generally accepted use of the word. Explaining the first attempts of birds to sing, he says, "Their first essays show hardly a rudiment of the future song." * He also, without comment, quotes ■• "Descent of Man," p. 86. No. 289. — January 1889. Professor Wyman, and speaks of " rudimentary legs " in the human embryo.* In the letter quoted by Mr. Swinton, the following expression occurs : "Natural selection cannot jDOssibly make a useless or rudimentary organ." How is this to be reconciled with another statement in the " Descent of Man " ? p. 25. Treating of the existence of rudimentary organs, Mr. Darwin says: "They became greatly reduced, either from simple disuse, or through the natural selection of individuals," &c. With reference to Mr. Tansley's paper, I am sorry that he should suppose that 1 purposely ignored the instance of the " os coccyx " brought forward by him in his article of August last. He there asks : " What ' quality ' does Miss Layard find in the ' os coccyx ' to compensate for the ' quantity ' in the tail ? And how can a structure, i.e. which is so degenerated as to have no function at all, be ' more perfect ' than one which in many cases has distinct functions " ? To this I would reply : In the first place, it is not a fact that the os coccyx has " no function at all." It is perfectly adapted to its function, which is to " give attachment to certain muscles." Of this Darwin was aware, though he still chose to call it a "rudimentary tail." f When we consider the difference of man's posture from that of the beasts, the former being erect, the latter quadrupedal, we may, perhaps, regard the tail as a necessary protection, which the improved structure no longer required. I am not aware that this solution has been put for- ward, but it appears a very simple and natural one ; in which case the tail, far from being the " typical standard " of a now debased organ, would rather suggest a mark of servitude, and stamp its wearer as of lower origin. Mr. Tansley is perfectly justified in pinning me to the second consideration, which I am most certainly responsible for starting, namely, as to the claim of the human creature, from one point of view, to be regarded * " Descent of Man," p. 11. t ' Letter to C Lyell,' October 11, 1859. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. as an "ideal form," but while I am ready to defend my position on the ground first taken up by me, it is fair that my original meaning should be clearly under- stood. In my first article, I said : "According to the theory of development, it has taken untold ages of evolution advancing by gradations infinitely minute, to produce at length the ideal human form." This sentence Mr. Tansley omitted to quote, though he proceeded to challenge the following sentence which succeeded it : " allowing, as we must, man's to be the ideal form." I think it is sufficiently clear that my object was to meet the evolutionist on his own ground. This I explained more fully in my second article, in the following sentence: "arguing upon evolution grounds, we are bound to look upon anything lower than the ideal form as an arrested development ; and for the sake of the argument I adopted that position." In my third article, March, iS88, I again repeated that "arguing on evolution ground only," should I use such terms as " excrescences and deficiencies, with regard to organs in the lower animals," and concluded my paper by saying : " To the non-evolutionist every group is perfect in its kind, and for its environment." This I repeated again in my last article. But while I wish it to be understood that I am Hot pressing for a linear classification, there are higher and lower morphological types which make a philosophical classification necessary, and I have the authority of Agassiz for placing man at the head of this classification. He says, "It is evident that there is a manifest progress in the succession of beings on the surface of the earth. This progress consists, &c., &c., among the vertebrata especially, in their increasing resemblance to man."* With regard to Mr. Tansley's objection to my use of the term "ideal form," I will again quote the same authority. Speaking of groups of animals, Agassiz says, " For each of these groups, whether larger or smaller, we involuntarily picture in our minds [an image made up of the traits which characterise the group. This ideal image is called a type, &c., &c. This image may correspond to some one member of the group, but it is rare that any one species embodies all our ideas of the class, family, or genus to which it belongs, &c., &c. It is common, however, to speak of the animal which embodies most fully the characters of a group, as the type of that group."t If then it is true that groups of organic beings in an ever-ascending scale have given place to "other and more perfect groups," which is the expression used by Darwin, and if in the most perfect group, man is found to embody most fully the characters of the group, we may surely in this sense regard him as the type, and describe him as the ideal image. ' * Agassiz and Gould's " Comparative Physiology," p. 417. f Agassiz and Gould's " Comparative Pnysiology." Intro- duction, p. XX. Mr. Tansley further says : "organs, &c., can only be considered more or less perfect in proportion as they are more or less able to perform the functions for which they were developed, and that, therefore, no organism can be said to be ' ideal ' unless every one of its organs performs its function more com- pletely than any corresponding ones throughout organic nature." If this be the only legitimate way of comparing organs and organisms, the rule should certainly hold good with regard to groups of organic beings ; but is this Mr. Darwin's meaning of the expression "more perfect " when alluding to them ? Does he mean "groups of organic beings better able to perform the functions for which they were developed " ? If so, this is a contradiction of Mr. Fenn's state- ment in the November number of Science-Gossip, 1887, that "all animals are as perfect as man, and as admirably adapted to their surroundings." Again, Mr. Darwin speaks of man as "the wonder and glory of the universe."* If he judged of him simply "in relation to his environment," as Mr. Tansley would insist, why should he use such an expression regarding man rather than any of the lower animals ? It is very evident, I think, that he recognised in him, the type, or ideal image, of the most perfect group, " standing," as Dr. Nicholson expresses it in his " Manual of Zoology," "at the top of the whole animal kingdom. "f This is hardly stronger language than that used by me in my first article, when I spoke of man as the "last triumph of creative power." Mr. Tansley's view of the operation of Natural Selection is that it "ultimately consists in the action of certain purely mechanical environing agencies on the organism," and is not the result of " the opera- tion of an intelligent agency." This is hardly in accordance with the following statement of Mr. Darwin's. He says: "We can only say that it has so pleased the Creator to com- mand that the past and present inhabitants of the world should appear in a certain order, &c., &c., that He has impressed on them the most extra- ordinary resemblance, and has classed them in groups subordinate to groups. "$ Mr. Tansley further adds "that the operation of an intelligent agency, would be entirely inconsistent with the operation of a factor like Natural Selection." I cannot reply to this better than by quoting the words of Mr. Alfred Russell Wallace, one of Mr. Darwin's ablest fellow-workers and followers, who, after combating in the earlier part of his argument, what he calls the " continual interference hypothesis," is forced by his observations of a certain class of phenomena relating to the development of man, to * " Descent of Man," p. 212. f " Manual of Zoo!.," p. 16. % "Animals and Plants under Domestication," vol. i. p. 9. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. the following confession. " The inference I would draw from this class of phenomena is, that a superior intelligence has guided the development of man in a definite direction and for a special purpose, &c., &c. We must therefore admit the possibility that, if we are not the highest intelligences in the universe, some higher intelligence may have directed the pro- cess by which the human race was developed ; by means of more subtle agencies than we are acquainted with." " At the same time I must confess, that this theory has the disadvantage of requiring the intervention of some distinct individual intelligence, to aid in the production of what we can hardly avoid considering as the ultimate aim and outcome of all organised existence — intellectual, ever-advancing, spiritual man. »>iit Whether this " controlling intelligence " was angel, archangel, spirit or demon, does not affect the question. It is enough for the purpose to know that this champion of Natural Selection discovered the necessity of recognising the operation of an "intelligent agency," directing the process of man's development, and was honest enough to admit it. Perhaps Mr. Tansley would agree with Mr. Wallace that "it is simply a question of how the Creator has worked," and not whether there exists an "inteUigent Creator"? If so, he is still in the company of Darwin, Wallace, and Dawson, names that may surely figure among " the prominent men of science of the day." If on the other -hand, such words as the fol- lowing are the sum and substance of Mr. Tansley's belief, "Natural Selection, &c., &c., ultimately consists in the action of certain purely mechanical environing agencies on the organism," then the question becomes one of supreme importance. Does Mr. Tansley see no difficulty in such a state- ment as that which I subjoin ? Speaking of the rhizopoda, Huxley says : " In the substance of many of these creatures, nothing is to be discerned but a mass of jelly, &c., &c. ; it is structureless and organ- less, and without definitely formed parts. Neverthe- less, &c., it can produce a shell : a structure in many cases, of extraordinary complexity and most singular beauty. That this particle of jelly is capable of guiding physical forces in such a manner as to give rise to those exquisite and almost mathematically- arranged structures— being itself structureless and without permanent distinction or operation of parts is, to my mind, a fact of the profouudest signifi- cance."! What this "profound significance" implies, the writer does not tell us, but to some minds it would not unnaturally necessitate the conception of an intelligent agent. * Wallace, " On Natural Selection," p. 360. + " Introduction to the Classification of Animals," Huxley pp. 10, II. With regard to my statement, that "an evolution of retrogression has been cheerfully accepted," and to which Mr. Tansley takes exception, I will refer him to a paper by T. in June 1888. In defence of the illustration used by me of " Mozart playing on a worn-out piano," though Mr. Tansley conceives it to be "singularly unhappy," and objects that the piano " cannot possibly be compared with an organism, which has infinite powers of adapting itself to changed conditions," he must remember that instead of speaking of the " os coccyx " as perfectly adapted to its present undoubted func- tion, he described it as "so degenerated as to have no function at all." In conclusion, I would thank Mr. Tansley for his last article, which has given a more clear and definite shape to the argument. HOW TO WORK WITH THE MICRO- GRAPHIC DICTIONARY. By W. J. Simmons. THE great value of the Micrographic Dictionary can only be realised by always having it at hand on the work-table, and by constantly referring to it. If used in this way it will soon prove itself to be something more than a mere work of reference. To enable students, and those whose leisure may be scanty, to work at the "Micrographic" from this standpoint, I venture to trespass on your space with a list of articles, the careful perusal of which, in the order I have given them, will repay the trouble of following my advice. It took me some little time to draw up the list ; and, as I found it useful, I proceed to set it out for the benefit of your readers, as a clue to what may be designated " treatises," concealed in the pages of Griffiths and Henfrey's useful work. List : Protoplasm, p. 641 ; Primordial utricle, p. 637 ; Sarcode, p. 674 ; Cells, animal, p. 137 ; Cells, vegetable, p. 142 ; Secondary deposits, p. 686 ; Pitted structures, p. 600; Spiral structures, p. 711 (herein refer to the following articles : Lycopodiacese, Ferus, Masses) ; Tissues, vegetable, p. 768 (herein also Fibro-plastic and Animal) ; Inter-cellular substance, p. 438 ; Medulla and Medullary rays, p. 495 ; Pollen, p. 613 ; Anther, p. 56 ; Spores, p. 724 ; Ovule, p. 565. Also the following : Epidermis, p. 294 ; Hairs, p. 370. The value of the notes to Bibliography which follow each article can only be appreciated by any one who is determined to follow up a subject, or to find what has already been written about some object which has awakened interest in the real student of nature. Another way in which such a student can utilise the "Micrographic" is to draw up conspectuses in the form given below. Similar schedules will be found under some of the articles, e.g. under Trac/ielina, p. 775. But under Actinophryina, p. 14, a table only is given, on which my conspectus is entirely based, B 2 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. though I venture to consider my " Key " of more help in tracking down species than the table. Here is my method of arranging the information given in the table under the heading " Actinophryina." I. Shell absent II. Shell present, /r^t'. Actinophryina, p. 14. 1. Pseudopodia arising from all parts of the surface. Ex. Actinophrys,^. 14. 2. Pseudopodia arising from a zone near the circumference. Ex. Tricho- discits, p. 7S0. 3. Pseudopodia arising from one side. Ex. Plagiophrys, p. 604. 1. Incrusted with foreign mattter. Ex. Pleurophiys, p. 606. 2. Not incrusted, oblong. I f Orihce lateral. Ex Trmema ^. 783. ' ^ y 0. Unnce termmal. Ex. Euglypka, p. 306. III. Shell i:iresent, attached to foreign bodies, Ex. Urmila, p. 795. {The references are to the pages of the last edition of the Alicrographic.) I have drawn up several of these " Keys," notably one for the Rotataria, which has proved serviceable ; it extends over five full sheets of foolscap written brief-wise. Portions of these tables are merely re- arrangements, similar to the key to the Actiiio- phryitia given above. They suggest that complete sets of "Keys," with references to the pages of the text, printed as an appendix to the future editions of the dictionary would be as useful as the analyses prefixed to Lewis's Law of Trusts, and Smith's Real and Personal Property, the former of which also has references to the pages of the ' text. Readers who have followed me thus far will under- stand that I advocate the exercise of drawing up these conspectuses for two reasons : — (i) the practice impresses characteristic features in the mind ; and (2) the conspectus when framed is a handy and practical guide to the worker. Finally I believe the " Micrographic " can be most advantageously em- ployed if the student will take it up, pen in hand, in the way indicated above. GOSSIP ON CURRENT TOPICS. By W. Mattieu Williams, F.R.A.S., F.C.S. LIQUID PRISMS.— The spectroscope has now become so important as an instrument for research, that everything concerning it is interesting. Its efficacy depends upon the varying refrangibility of light from different sources, or light of different colours. We pass compound light such as that of a white sunbeam through a prism of glass or other transparent substance, and thereby bend it out of its original course. If it were all bent in the same degree, we should still obtain a white image on a screen or in the eye ; but as the violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and red rays, are refracted or bent in different degrees — in the order named — they diverge from each other in the newly-acquired or bent course, and thus are projected upon different places, and are accordingly seen separated from each other. But the bending or refracting power of transparent substances varies considerably, and the degree of dispersion they thus effect varies accordingly. The more delicate researches in spectroscopy demand high degrees of dispersion, far more than a single prism of glass can supply. Therefore, trains of such prisms are used, the second receiving from the first, the third from the second, and so on, in such wise that each spreads further out the outspreading of the preceding one. But each of these prisms stops some of the light, and a long battery of prisms is complicated and costly. Therefore it is desirable to use the trans- parent substance which has the greatest dispersive power. When some fortunate chemist shall succeed in crystallizing carbon, or, better still, in obtaining it in the form of a plastic transparent jelly, like many of its compounds, we shall have prisms vastly superior to those of glass, and microscope lenses of corresponding superiority. In the meantime, a liquid compound of carbon with sulphur, the bisulphide of carbon, has been used by enclosing it in a hollow glass prism. This, however, stands a long way behind the diamond in dispersive power, thcjugh somewhat before glass, and it has a pernicious habit of becoming yellow as it grows old, and has done much work by exposure to light. Mr. H. G. Madan has tried, as a substitute, a liquid with rather higher refractive power than the bisulphide, which is also a carbon compound contain- ing nitrogen and hydrogen in addition to the carbon and sulphur, and bearing one of those hideous hypo- thetically descriptive names that are now in fashion among a certain class of chemists, " pkenylthiocar- batnide " and " iso-so/focianatofenilico.''^ It is interest- ing, however, in spite of such ill-usage. It retains its colour ; is far less volatile than the bisulphide ; is not so combustible, and does not dissolve the cement that may be most conveniently used for uniting the three pieces of glass that constitute its prismatic prison walls. Therefore it will come into frequent use. Scavengers on the Sea-Coast.— " In the Revue Biologique du Nord de la France," is a paper on the natural scavengers of the coast, in which is stated the curious fact, that at Boulogne the species Nassa is very abundant, and works very hard in destroying dead and decaying animal matter. At Le Portel, a fishermen's village, so near that it is but a suburb to Boulogne, Nassa is scarce, but Eurydice pulchra is very abundant, and transacts the necessary business. At Cape Alprech, there are neither Eurydice nor Nassa, but Ligia oceanica performs ; and HA RD WICKE' S SCIENCE- G OS SI P. at Equihen, the work is done by Orchestire. No ex- planation of the difterence is supplied, but I venture to suggest that, in the case of Boulogne, all but very hardy filth-eating animals must be killed by surfeit if they approach the harbour. At Le Portel there is one main sewer which is uncovered as it flows into the sea. I have seen the picturesque fisher-wives busily engaged washing their clothes at its outlet, I suppose they find that the ammonia softens the water. If Nassa objects to soap it would avoid this locality. The other places named are farther away and, therefore, may be the habitat of animals that are not sufficiently hardy to endure the aroma of the " eau de Boulogne " which is washed into the sea when the harbour is flooded by the Liane. Rock-formation under Pressure. — The re- searches of W. Spring are throwing more and more light on the physics and chemistry of geology. He showed some time ago that a mixture of copper and zinc filings may, by simple compression, become completely interfused and form brass ; that lead and tin may thus form pewter, and fusible alloy may be similarly formed by subjecting a mixture of its constituents to pressure. Also that sulphides of alkalis and alkaline earths may be similarly formed. It was previously assumed that fusion by heat was necessary for effecting such combination. He has recently continued such experiments by operating with moistened substances, submitting them to a pressure amounting to 6000 atmospheres, i.e. to about the pressure to which the crust of the earth is subjected at a depth of 60,000 to 70,000 feet. With all the metals the moisture exerts a retarding action, but with soluble substances that give a solution having less bulk than the undissolved materials the conglomeration is assisted by the moisture, while with substances that give a solution of greater volume than the sum of the solid and its solvent it is retarded. Substances of the first of these two classes have their solubility in water increased by pressure, while those of the second, suffer a diminution of solubility by pressure. Insoluble substances do not show such marked differences under pressure in the wet and dry state, but in some cases among these the water assists the conglomeration. A little reflection will show the bearing of these researches upon the formation of rocks and minerals of all kinds, seeing that in the subterranean laboratory of nature pressure is always operating, and therefore, our superficial laboratory results are modified accord- ingly. Mr. Spring's researches are, in fact, opening up a new chemistry, modifying and even contradict- ing some of the laws induced from our ordinary laboratory phenomena. One of these is the supposed law, that chemical combination cannot occur between dry solids, as familiarly illustrate/I by the fact, that dry carbonates of Soda or potash may be mixed in a state of powder with dr>' tartaric or citric acid with- out combining, while they combine with effervescence immediately they are dissolved or even wetted. It appears that the agency of water in such cases does no more than to bring the substances into contact ; that the contact, if effected by pressure, has the same effect. If dry sulphate of baryta and carbonate of soda are compressed, a reaction sets in, which is greatly accelerated by heat, and other new and curious chemical reactions may be produced under pressure. Mr. Spring is proceeding with further investigations. Dyes from Sea-weed. — Mr. F. Nettlefold has recently communicated to " The Chemical News " (vol. Iviii. page 15), some interesting results obtained by nitrating alginic acid, a sea-weed product. He thus obtains a light yellow substance, which is in- soluble in water, but which by treatment with alkalis yields a brown solution. This alkaline solu- tion, especially when the alkali used is ammonia, dyes cotton directly, without any mordant, and produces a fine " Bismarck brown," which resists soap, and is said to excel many of the aniline colours, the depth of shade being considerable and of great intensity. This dye differs from the aniline dyes in having little affinity for wool, either mordanted or unmordanted. This may be the beginning of much useful work, as the dye is so especially applicable to cotton. It seems to be generally the case where any one very decided colour may be brought out, others are obtain- able by modified processes. It will be a great boon if we can turn the vast accumulations of sea-weed on our shores to good account as raw material for chemical manufacture. Pig Feeding. — German chemists and farmers are doing a great deal of useful work in the feeding of animals scientifically, i.e. by weighing different kinds of food and carefully recording results. N. J. Fjord, by thus using corn, skim milk, whey, &c., as pig-food, comes to the following conclusions, isl, that the common opinion that pigs make more profitable use of their food when it is largely diluted with water— as in ordinary pig-wash — is fallacious ; 2nd, that although confining pigs produces more increase of weight than allowing them to run in the sty-yard, he thinks they are thus rendered more liable to disease. This is not new. I have heard the same opinion exi^ressed by English farmers ; it is in fact almost self-evident, but unfortunately many pig-feeders care for nothing beyond obtaining weight, whether the fattening be a healthy growth or a result of disease. Judging from the panting specimens commonly exhibited at our cattle-shows, I suspect the judges who award the medals are equally indifferent. I may safely venture to affirm that they rarely or ever apply the stethescope to their victims. The 3rd conclusion of this experimenter is that 12 HARD WICKE' S SCIENCE- G OS SIP. parts by weight of whey, 6 of skim milk, I of bruised barley, and i of bruised rice, are of approximately equal feeding value. Mixed Diet v. Vegetable-food for Pigs. — Another German experimenter selected six pigs from the same litter lOO days old ; and three were fed on I part by weight of dried blood, 6 of bran, and 14 of skim milk ; the other three received an unlimited amount of maize-meal. The difference of composition of these two kinds of food was considerable ; in the first, one half of the dry weight was albuminoid or nitrogenous ; in the second, only \ or \, the excess in the latter being carbo-hydrates or farinaceous food. At the end of 130 days, the pigs were killed and compared, with the following results. The total live weight of the first set was 19 per cent, greater than that of the second. In set I, 38 per cent, of the whole body, ex- cluding bone, was fat ; in set 2 it amounted to 46 per cent. The dead carcasses of set I were 21 per cent- heavier than set 2 ; the kidneys of set i were 42 per cent. ; the spleens 33, the livers 32, the blood 59, the hair and skins 36, the large muscles of the back 64, the two muscles of the body cavity 38, and the bones 23 per cent, greater than in the second set. The strength of the thigh-bones, determined by a specially-contrived machine, was found to be 62 per cent, greater in the first than in the second set. From this it is inferred by the author that by varying the feeding, fat or lean can be cultivated at pleasure, the carbo-hydrates being the most effective fat producers, but that excessive fat is produced at the expense of the muscles and to the detriment of the animals if used for breeding. Referring again to our Christmas shows of fat beasts, it would be well if some such analyses as the above were made occasionally. As pigs in their natural state obtain neither the dietary of set i nor set 2, a third set of experiments might be made in which green vegetables and roots should be added to the excessively farinaceous diet of the third set, the absence of vegetable juices in which is a serious defect. LAELAPS ARVOLICA. Parasite of Water Rat {Arvicola amphibins). THIS Gamasid, so far as I know, has never been described, or figured. The Gamasi are so numerous that we may be thankful wherever there is any well-marked structural difference enabling us to form a subdivision. We have to thank Koch for the division Laelaps. He describes and figures four species. These were all found on mice ; two of them (Z. hiUiris and Z. pachypiis) on Lcduhis arvalis, and two (Z. agilis and L. festimis) on Mas sylvaticus. The division is founded chiefly on the fact, that the front legs, though longer, are almost as thick as the second pair, whilst in gamasus the front legs are not only longer, but much thinner than the second Fig. I. — Ventral surface of Parasite of Water-Rat (magnified). pair. Murray ("Economic Entomology," Aptera), objects to this genus on the ground that the figure in Koch's Uebersicht does not bear out his diagnosis. Fig. 2.— Dorsal surface of Parasite of Water-Rat (magnified). This shows that Murray had not seen any of the creatures, and probably had not seen the figures in Koch's larger work. The specimens from which my figures are drawn were sent to me for identification by HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. my friend Mr, J, E. Mason, of Alford, in this county. He found them on a vole (now in the Museum at Edinburgh) which was brought into his house by his cat. Figure 2 is a view of the upper-surface of the mite. It will be observed that the larger portion of the body is covered with a chitinous plate of a dark brown colour ; in its middle is a darker portion in the form of a cross. The creature is covered with a number of strong spiky hairs, especially noticeable near the edge of the dorsal plate, and on the hinder margin of the soft part of the body. Figure i shows the under-surface. There are two somewhat quadrangular chitinous plates, one thoracic, the other abdominal, having spiky hairs, especially near the angles. And besides these two plates, there is a third lighter-coloured anal plate, of. a triangular shield-shape, having the anal aperture in the centre, a small hair on each side of this aperture and a long spiky hair at the apex. The two spiracles are easily seen, also the air-tubes leading from them. C. F. George. A ASTRONOMY AND METEOROLOGY. By John Browning, F.R.A.S. T the meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society Mr. J. Roberts described the instrument by means of which he measured and engraved copies of stellar photographs, to which I referred in my last article. The diameters of the star discs are mea- sured by the aid of a micrometer connected with a graving tool moving over a copper plate, so that a circle is drawn on the plate corresponding to the size of the photographed star disc, and the position of the star is accurately registered on the copper plate. Mr. Inwards described a novel compensating pen • dulum of very simple construction. The pendulum has a steel rod and a steel sphere. The rod is suspended by a spring, which is clasped between jaws held in a sliding block of metal, which moves vertically in a groove below the point of suspension. With each variation of temperature the sliding block moves up or down, so that the spring is clasped by the jaws at a different height, as the sliding block is attached to a zinc rod, the height of which can be adjusted by a fine screw. In January Mercury will be an evening star, setting at the beginning of the month about 4 aft., and on the 31st at 6.33 aft. Venus will be an evening star, setting on the 1st at 7 hrs. 41 min., and on the 31st at 9 hrs. 7 min. Mars will be an evening star, setting on the ist at 7 hrs. 47 min., and on the 31st at 8 hrs. 3 min. Jupiter will be a morning star, rising on the 1st at 6.46 A.M., and on the 31st at 5.15 a.m. Saturn will be an evening star, rising on the ist at 7.13 P.M., and on the 31st at 5.3 p.m. Meteorology.— A.\. the Royal Observatory, Green- wich, the lowest reading of the barometer for the week ending 24th November, was 29-61 in. on Tuesday morning, and the highest 30-06 in. on Friday evening. The mean temperature of the air was 49 deg., and 7-8 deg. above the average. The general direction of the wind was W.S.^V. Rain fell on two days of the week, to the aggregate amount of o'li in. The duration of registered bright sun- shine in the week was 6-2 hours, against 5-1 hours at Glynde Place, Lewes. For the week ending 8th December, the lowest reading of the barometer was 29-75 in. at the be- ginning of the week, and the highest was 30"6 in. on Thursday morning. The mean temperature of the air was 49-1 deg., and 6-7 deg. above the average. The general direction of the wind was S.S.W. Rain fell on three days of the week, to the aggregate amount of o' 17 in. The duration of registered bright sunshine in the week was n"5 hours, against 9-3 hours at Glynde Place, Lewes. The temperature in January is several degrees higher on the west coast than it is on the east coast. The isotherm, or line of equal temperature, 38°, runs along the east coast from Berwick to Lincoln, and then trending to the west returns inland through York to Dumfries. 39° runs from Kirkcudbright through Bolton, Chester, Hereford, Oxford and London to Rarasgate. 40° from Wigtown, through Radnor, Bournemouth, Bristol, Salisbury, South- ampton, and four miles inland along the coast to Folkestone. 41° from the Isle of ]\Ian, [_ through Taunton to the Isle of Wight. 42° from Anglesea, through Swansea, across Dartmoor to the sea. 43° from Pembroke through Plymouth. 44° runs through Truro, and 45° just through the Land's End. In January the average rainfall on the east coast is I inch ; inland throughout the midlands it is 2 inches ; along the south coast it is 3 inches, and along the west coast it is mostly 6 inches, this last figure representing the enormous amount of 620 tons to each acre. Mild December Days — Some Curious Con- trasts.— During the first week in December a strong and broad current of air came across our islands from the equatorial regions of the Atlantic, and unusually mild weather was reported over the entire kingdom. On the Continent, however, where light breezes descend from a large anticyclonic system lying over Central Europe, conditions were more seasonable, and as a result some curious contrasts have recently been observed between the weather over England and the state of things prevailing in localities which bear a reputation for sunny geniality. On the morn- ing of the 4th of December, for example, London was 5° warmer than Naples, 7° warmer than Monaco, 9° warmer , than Laghouat, in Central Algeria, 11°; 8 HA RD WICKE' S SCIENCE- G OSSIF. warmer than Constantinople, 12° warmer than Bor- deaux, 14° warmer than Marseilles, 16'^ warmer than Rome, 17° warmer than Madrid, and 19° warmer than Paris. On the 6th very similar contrasts were observed, the weather in the metropolis being 3° warmer than Lisbon, 11° warmer than Nice, 19° warmer than Paris, and 30° warmer than Belfast. In the course of the day the thermometer in London reached a maximum of 58°, and the day was there- fore the mildest December day experienced since 1873, when a similar reading was recorded on the 17th of the month. An examination of the meteoro- logical statistics shows that the thermometer in December seldom rises above 55°, and in the years 1885, 1886, and 1887, it did not succeed even in reaching that level. On the loth came a great change, for on the morning of that day it was colder in London than any other part of western Europe south of the Arctic circle, being 22° colder than the Scilly Isles, 10° colder than Berlin, 3'' eolder than Paris, and 1° colder than Stockholm. A WINTER IN MASSAUA. Part IL BIRDS were more numerous. There were two species of vultures, the more numerous species being quite black, a stork, a heron, spoonbill {Platalea leucorodia), pelican, three species of gull : a bird of one of these species was wounded in the wing and is now alive and doing well in the Zoological Gardens ; two species of terns — a specimen of one of these species {Stenia velox) was also wounded and kept alive for some months, and was a most interest- ing pet ; it was astonishing to see what large fish it would swallow. A gannet, tropic bird, large numbers of sandpipers, turnstones and curlews, a sand grouse, three species of wagtails, several of flycatchers, an owl, a goatsucker, and a bunting, the last very common, and as its breast was jet black and its upper plumage and head sand-coloured, seemed to appear and disappear in a marvellous manner. Reptiles were scarce : one small brown snake, a small striped sand lizard, and a gecko were all I saw. The sand lizard is a species also very common at Suakim. Land Arthropoda. — Malacostraca by one species of armadillo. Arachnidi were poorly represented in species, but these species were plentiful. There were two scorpions, Prionus liosoma, and Bultuis EtiropcEJis ; three spiders of the genera Ixodes, Epeira (very common) and Thomisus respectively. The Myriopoda were represented by one species of the genus Scolopendra. Of Insccta were collected ten species of Hemiptera, among which were Cletus notatits^ rcntatoma vcrhasci, Lygnus cnidclis, Penta- tiomi, Reduvius, Reduvii, Dysdcrius sitpcrstitioiiis ; seventeen species of Orthoptera, Cyrtacanthacris riifiuruius, Truxalis nasuta^ CEdipoda, Caloptenuts Italicus (?), Chrotogouus liigid>ris, Gryllus"(two species), Porthetis, Opernala (?), Opomala (?) ; seven species of Neuroptera, Anax ephippigeriis, Myrmeleon (acantha- cHsis), Myrmeleon, Distoisteisa Britllci, Sphingonetiis nebnlonis (?), Cyrtacanthairis mccstus, Chrysopa ; ten of Diptera, Hippobossa camciina, Bombylius, several species of Muscidse (the common house-fly was very numerous and troublesome), and Culicidoe, and one species of Tipulidce ; thirty-seven of Lepidoptera, Attaaos bankina:, Spliingotnorpha chlorea (common), Achcra melicerta, Deiopia pidchetta (common), Callopi- stna exotica, Agrotis, Arcidakainterpulsata, CallicJuyas pyrette, C. flo7-ella, Allylothris agathina, Teraclus, Bclenois ellesaitma, Co lias hyale, Danais dorippus, Hypolimas alcippoides, Pyramcis cardui, Yphthmia, Azarus jesons, Plebeius trochihis, Taraais pulchra, PyrgHs asteroidea. There were three other species of butterfly observed, and, among the moths, some Tineidae, which I did not catch ; seventeen of Hymenoptera, Stilbum amcihystinum, Eumenes dimidiatipeiniis, Ammophila, Xylocopa, Multillo, Xylocopa viodcsta, Discolia (two species), BracoHi Rhynchium ; fifty-seven of Coleoptera, two species of Trimera, Dermestes, and Coccinella ; two species of Tetramera of the genus Cleonus ; of Heteromera, Zophosis siilcapHs, Arthroidetis cicatrix, Oxycara, Crypticus, Aphitobius, Monomma, Opatrum, Adesmia (two species), Pimelia, Ocuera(?), Lentyria, Euryon(?) Nacerdes, and others unidentified ; of Pentamera were Philonthus, Oxypoda, Aphodius (two species), Saprinus (four species), Corynetes rufipes, Dermestes vulpinus, Anomala, Dromius, Chlsenius, Brachinus, Harpalus, Irox, Onthophagus, Atenchus sacer, Copris (two species), Hister, SilpJia micans, Acanthophorus near Capensis, Ermectes griseus, Bradyboenus, Glycia ornata, Tetragonoderus Jlavo-vittatiis, In most cases the generic names only are given, but where possible the specific names have been added. There were great numbers of Orthoptera, particularly grass- hoppers, but the variety of species was small. Of the beetles, the Carabidre were well represented, while only two species of Staphylinidre could be found and those very small. Fishes, Crustacea, Corals, etc. — The scarcity of life on land is amply made up by its profusion in the sea ; at times the harbour literally teems with fish, a " Half- beak " (Hemirhamphus) is particularly plentiful. These fish swim about in shoals and are often attended by one or two Belones, who occasionally snap up one of the "half-beaks." It is curious to see a belone swimming with, and in a shoal of " half- beaks," for a circle quite free of fish surrounds the belone, then suddenly with a dart like lightning the belone seizes an unfortunate "half-beak" and swallows it. I caught a belone in a strange manner one day, it had got some fatty substance entangled in its jaws, and was unable to dive or swim. Nineteen HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. rspecies of fish were captured as follows : Apogon -cnneastigma,"^ Apogonichthys auritits* Scokpsis gha- ttavt,* Cocsio striatJis* Chrysophrys bifasciata* (tolerably common and very good eating), Serraniis hcxagonafits and S. lanceolatiis, both species plentiful and fairly good eating, commonly known amongst sailors as "rock-cod," Ldhriims viahscna, common .and good eating, Holocanthiis maculosus, Caranx affinis,* Anteniiarius marmoratus, var. raniiiiis, Acanthiirus nigrofusciis, Gobins echinocephalus* very <:ommon amongst the coral and attaching itself to it by the sucker formed by the ventral fins, retroscirtcs mtratus* Tetrodon stellatus* a pretty yellow and black-striped " globe-fish," and when it was first hauled up in the trawl it was with difficulty that the mouth and fins could be distinguished, so perfectly inflated into a ball was the body ; a species of Pseudo- scarus, generally known as a " parrot fish," very common and good eating ; Glyphidodon ccckstitms, Julis lunaris* a species of " half-beak " (Hemirham- phus), so called from having the mandible elongated into a long beak, large numbers of this fish would on dark nights jump into the boat as we pulled about the harbour, a species of belone,t several species of Plagiostomi, including the hammer-headed shark (Eygaena), saw-fish (Pristis), rays (Rajidre) ; a species of coffer-fish (Ostracion), so-called from the body being enclosed in a sort of hard casing, the only soft skin being about the tail bases of the fins and snout to allow the free working of the muscles in these parts ; numerous species of coral-fishes (Squamipinnes) glowing like butterflies in all sorts of colours and as varied in shape, and several species of Thynni. We had splendid opportunities of watching the fish, so clear was the water, and the ship lay just outside the edge of the reef, where most of the fish seemed to congregate. It is interesting to watch a large shoal cA fish swimming about, and how they move round an obstacle following their leaders in exactly the same track as if they were all in one piece. Of Crustacea, crabs were the most numerous, a long-legged fast-running species (Gecarcinus) was in great numbers on the beach, and could only be caught after a hard run ; then came the hermit-crabs (Paguridce) of all sizes, nearly every shell (and great numbers of empty shells of all kinds lay along the shore) contained a hermit-crab, and the effect of seeing numbers of shells moving rapidly about is very strange and rather startling ; there was also a very pietty " calling-crab" (Gelasimus), a swimming-crab (Portunus), and a species of the curious sponge-crab (Dromia), which always carries about with it such a curious collection of living things on its back. Several species of prawns (Palremon) and " Locust shrimps " (Squillre) were common ; also a curious little Crustacean like a minute lobster, which, after having been kept for some time in a glass, would * Deposited in the Natural History Museum, S. Kensington. t " Gar-fish " of fishermen and sailors. throw off its limbs with aloud click, perfectly audible at a distance of two yards ; and a cuttle-fish (Sepia). It was somewhat strange that, although quantities of empty shells could be picked up on the beach, very few were fresh, the principal live shells found were cowries, and even these were scarce. One land-shell {Bitlimtis Abyssinicits*) only was found. Asteroidea, as the common starfish, sunstar and brittle stars were common, two species of " sea- urchin" (Echinoidea), one with long thin spines, very common on the edge of the reefs in holes it makes for itself, and a short thick-spined species ; there were also three species of "sea-cucumbers" (Holothu- roidea). Tunicates were common, but sea-anemones (Hexactinire) were, comparatively speaking, rare. Of corals were obtained Astrea dcfiliculata (specimens of this genus were found at a depth of 15 feet at Monkullo), a variety of Tubipora mitska ; Madrepora gracilis, a Fungina, PTeteropera hempridii, and several species of Antipathidse. At times the water was brilliantly phosphorescent, particularly on the night of January loth, when the sea was one mass of green phosphorescent fire, the glow from which was distinctly visible all over the harbour ; it appeared suddenly and disappeared as suddenly, and was caused by myriads of the Noctiliua mi/iaris, tons of which were thrown up on the beach the next day in great masses of reddish jelly (see letter in Science- Gossip of February 1886). The varieties of minute marine life are almost beyond description, though some, as species of Lepralia and Cellepora, make themselves conspicuous by their numbers. To those interested in marine life no place offers such attractions as one of these coral-formed harbours. Varieties of seaweeds were not abundant, two or three species of Melano- sperms growing in large patches were the most noticeable. 5. JVeather. — As in most tropical places the constant regularity of the weather is wonderful, and strikes forcibly an observer who has been accustomed to the continual changes of the British Isles. Obser- vations were taken with standard instruments (lent by the Meteorological Office) regularly day and night during the three months (December, January and February) every two hours for the barometer, wind's direction and force, and every four hours for all other observations, except those on the rainfall observed at 8 A.M., daily, solar radiation thermometer read at 8 A.M., noon, and 4 P.M., and spectroscopic observa- tions (using one of Browning's miniature spectroscopes) at 7 A.M. daily. (l) Wind. — The phenomenon of the land and sea breeze was very marked. Towards 9. 30 P.M., the land-wind set in ; at first very light and gradually increasing, to about 4 A. M., then decreasing, veering to the N. and freshening about 9.30 A.M., and setting in from the sea about noon, increasing in force * Deposited in the Natu-al History Museum, S. Kensington. lO HA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSSIF. until about 2.45 p.m., then decreasing, and towards 9,30 P.M. backing ngain into the land-wind. In all cases the velocity of the sea-breeze was much greater than that of the land-breeze. The mean direction of the wind for the three months was N. 28° W. with a mean velocity of 6*i miles per hour, (2) Barometer.— Rise and fall slight and very regular, 1st minimum about 3.28 A.M., 2nd minimum, 3.33 P.M., 1st maximum 9.50 A.M., 2nd maximum 9.40 P.M. The general mean height was 29*952. The mean height of the barometer was higher in January than in December or February. (3) Temperatures. — Maximum temperature of air at 1.30 P.M., minimum at 4. II A.M. The general mean for the three months was 77 '8' The lowest temperature, 68. i, was regis- tered at 4 A.M. February 2nd, and the highest 95° at 2.30 P.M. February 28th. The coolest time was the last fortnight of January' and the first fortnight of February. The maximum temperature of the sea- water (in the harbour) was at 5h. 34m. p.m., and the minimum at 7h. 45m. A.M. Mean temperature for the three months was 81 -6, and mean density 1-0265. (4) Vapour tension. — Mean for the three months 0750. It is interesting to note that in December and February there were double daily maxima and minima. In January one daily max. and one min. (5) Relative Humidity. — Mean for the three months 79*2; maximum about 4. 13 A.M., and minimum about 2 . 22 P.M. ; in summer this is very low. (6) Clouds. — Mean amount for the three months 4*7 ; ist maxi- mum at 7.35 A.M., 2nd maximum at 7h, 51m. P.M. 1st minimum at ih. 20m. a.m., 2nd minimum at ih. 49m. P.M. The most common form of cloud was a middle layer stratus generally moving from a S.S.E. point, the low clouds, chiefly of the cumulus type, came with the wind, and the cirrus forms from a S. W. point. (7) Rainfall. — For December, was i-oinch, rain falling on 6 days ; for January, was i • 8 inches, rain falling on 14 days, and for February, the record was unreliable, rain falling on 7 days. Observations with the spectroscope gave in the majority of cases valuable indications of approaching wet, though from the almost constant appearance of the rainband on seacoasts or at sea, it is more difficult to estimate the relative value of the band there than it is at inland places. (S) Black-bulb thermometer. — Mean height for the three months was 109-1. (9) Weather. — Generally fine, though this is likely to be interrupted in the winter season by heavy rainfalls of short duration, and hard squalls accompanied by lightnin"- and thunder, and great variations in the direction and velocity of the wind. From a commercial point, Massaua is only useful as being the best port forthispart of Africa, for although it would be possible to cultivate the land (an event which would take place naturally in time) yet it would require an immense and continual outlay for irrigation. In conclusion, my thanks are due to the gentlemen who so kindly assisted me in naming my specimens^. particularly to Mr. Bauerman, of the Geological Museum, and to Mr. Boulanger and Mr. Waterhouse of the British Museum, South Kensington. David Wilson Barker. 66 Gloucester Crescent, Regents Park. SHORE HUNTING. Common British Sponges. SURELY nothing can be more enjoyable than v/hat I have termed above "Shore Hunting," on a sunny summer's day. With its aid the sea-side visitor may rid himself of that sea-side enmd which comes to all those who go away for a month or so from the labour and interests of business or profession, and neglect to provide themselves with the where- withal to occupy their liberated energies. "Pardon, my' lord," says the monk in Hypatia, " of sitting, as of all carnal pleasure,'cometh at length satiety," and the same might be said of that endless routine of sea-gazing, watching for the steamer, in- specting the hotel register, and the like, with which the sea-side summer visitant interests, or tries to interest, himself. The fallacy of the gospel of idleness is so patent, and is so continually being demonstrated, that it is wonderful how the superstition of it clings so • firmly amongst us. The man who complains of being . overworked and says he will go down to some quiet little watering-place and have a good spell of doing nothing, finds himself stranded, after a couple of days,- with only himself for company, and very poor com- pany at that, and is compelled to fall back upon the latest novel which he endeavours to read in the sun on the beach, getting a headache in consequence. Your other, and more sensible individual, willing to make his peace with the mammon of unrighteousness, goes to ■ ' one of the more crowded resorts, where, by the aid of stuffy billiard rooms, many calls for refreshment, ! with much strong tobacco and a minimum of genuine ! open air sea-side life, he, at any rate, succeeds in ' keeping himself occupied and interested, and so is I the healthier and better for his outing. The logical [ outcome of which is that a mild dissipation, though - I a low form of pleasure, is better than complete lack ' of interest. The physiology of the matter is simple enough. For the greater part of the year, perhaps eleven months out of the twelve, every hour is occupied, and the whole nervous organisation is kept on the stretch. On the other hand, we have a condition where life is devoid of interest or excitement, living, or better vegetating, at the lowest possible pressure. It re- quires a special training to become habituated to either condition, and once so habituated, the change from the one to the other is impossible, and the attempt to make it harmful. The characters of the holidays of the man of leisure, HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. II •and of the busy Yankee, are correlated to their habits of life, and are so distinct that the former cannot comprehend how the latter finds a pleasure in rushing from place to place "doing" the globe. Why, your globe-trotter is the outcome of a manner of life which has rendered abundance of incident and excitement as necessary to him as opium is to the opium-eater. It is not change'from activity to idleness which is required, but change of interest, by which the mental energies are shunted to a fresh track, while the old one which does service for eleven months of the year is ■being repaired. But this is a long drawn plea for shore-hunting, wherein paterfamilias (ay ! both the pater and the familias) may find interest without excitement, and, dabbling among rock-pools, may become as one of ■his own boys, sharing their pleasure, but seasoning it with his own powers of reflection. These short articles now commenced are not in- tended to afford an exhaustive guide to even the com- mon objects of the sea-shore, but rather to give short descriptions of the more easily recognised members of a definite group, with the best methods of preserving them and treating them for examination. The young collector, without exception, is at first confronted by two difficulties : — he is bewildered with ithe surprising and unlooked-for variety of organisms which he discovers lurking under every stone and in every rock -pool, and is at a loss to know where he may turn for aid in identifying these countless animals. The first is a 'transient matter, but the second is incurable, unless he have a friend at hand who will refer him to the necessary books, and give him his first lessons in identification. It is my pleasant ambition to supply the place of that friend. In the long run it can prove exhilarating to no •creature to sit passive like a bucket and have facts pumped in, says Carlyle, and likewise, in the long run, it cannot but prove wearisome and as labour which has no end to go on collecting, identifying, and amassing a knowledge of external form without vitalising that knowledge with some information ■ concerning the habits, structure, and above all life- histories of the animals so collected. At least it cannot but prove stale and unprofitable to the ordinarily con- structed mind, though the odd individual out of ten thousand who can delight in collecting postage stamps, ■ discovering how many times the word "moreover" occurs in the Bible, or solving prize puzzles, may think . otherwise. However, even to such would I extend a word of comfort, and that in the guise of a parable of facts. Certain ants of California in the process of forming . their underground homes, cast out large quantities of earth. Working as they do in the loose deposit of sur- face denudation, they unavoidably and unknowingly . turn out amongst their rubbish gems of gold and precious stones. The Indians have noticed this, and take advantage of the labours of the ant to pick out the stones they turn up. But in truth all scientific workers are to a greater or less extent working in the dark, labouring in the dimness of chaos, endeavouring to replace it by order with the honest purpose of bringing perchance one jewel to the light in order that a mightier hand may place it amongst its kindred to complete the glory of our human crown of knowledge. Let us remember how Darwin's glorious generalisa- tions were made possible by, and built up from, the labours of countless workers, or turn to any mono- graph and observe how much of the material has been supplied by enthusiastic and unknown collectors, and go forth to the rock pools with a strong hope that we too may furnish something towards the building. General Appearance and Anatomy of Sponges, Starting about an hour and a half before low-water, so as to be on the ground a full hour before the tide commences to rise again, and choosing some sheltered nook among the rocks if the coast be a rocky one, or about the piles of a pier if it be an open one, you will be sure to find attached to the under surface of inclined stones, in clefts and crannies of the rocks, about the roots of sea-weed, in short, in any sheltered spot where there is good surface for attachment and where the sun does not strike too strongly, tenacious masses of a sponge-yellow, green, brown, or orange colour, and with large orifices on the surface. These are the easily recognised objects for iwhich you are searching. Probably the first form which you will recognise will be one closely adherent to the rocks, very abundant on sloping surfaces not exposed directly to the waves or hot sun, and ofasi^onge-yellow colour shading into green on exposed parts. This is the common Halichondria panicea, the " bread-crumb " sponge of Ellis. Another equally common form is Hymeniacidon sangiiiiua, it is readily recognised by its salmon colour, and is also attached to rocks. It does not, however, form a mere crust with a smooth surface thrown into gentle hillocks, as does the Halichondria, but rises up into fistulous digitate pro- jections, each of which bears a large orifice at its summit. These two forms are very hardy, occurring much farther above low-water than any other sponge. Neither, however, presents us with a simple type of sponge-structure, but as they are the most easily obtained and readily recognised forms, they will best serve to furnish us with a first object lesson on sponge anatomy. To avoid confusion, the following description will apply specially to HalicJiondriapanicea^ though the points described may be equally well worked over in Hymeniacidon sanguiiica. Pieces of the sponge should be removed as com- pletely as possible and taken home in a considerable quantity of fresh sea-water. A pocket lens, a couple of needles mounted in holders, a pipette, and a 12 BA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSSIP. microscope, with a few slips and cover glasses, 'are all that is required for the first examination. With their aid the following description can be easily followed. The surface of Ilalichondria panicca is smooth, rising into low elevations, which are surmounted by crater-like openings. If the specimen be examined while quite fresh and healthy, the existence of strong currents streaming out of these openings or " oscula " may be readily demonstrated as follows — take a little carmine or Indian ink and rub it up with sea-water. Now, by means of a glass tube drawn out at one end, that is a pipette, place a little of the water with its suspended particles in the neighbourhood of an osculum, when the upstreaming current will bear it with it. Some of the particles will be drawn to the general surface of the sponge, and the finer ones penetrating by means of microscopical apertures or "pores," which occur in immense numbers, cause a distinct coloration, red or black, as the case may be, which will not wash off. Two opposite currents are thus shown to exist — one passing into the sponge by a great number of finely-divided streams, the inhalent currents, and another passing out of the sponge in comparatively few strong currents, by the oscula. This continual circulation of water through the animal serves to bring food, to carry out effete products, and for respiration. How it is maintained will be seen later. Now examine the surface of the sponge with a lens — it will readily be seen to consist of a thin membrane, the "dermal membrane," supported by a reticulum of spicules. A thin flake of dermal membrane may be sliced off with the point of a razor, or sharp scalpel. A double-edged lancet however best serves the purpose — it is merely pushed under point first. After flattening it out beneath a cover- slip, examine with a low power ; the reticulum of spicules will now appear as a network of interlacing bundles of spicules. These are imbedded in a gelatinous substance, which is the sponge-flesh, and lie more or less parallel to the surface of the animal ; the spicules of the rest of the sponge are also gathered into interlacing bundles, but lie in all planes. The dermal membrane in this form is thus a very definite part of the sponge, with a higher power, J-inch ob. for instance ; careful focussing should enable one to determine the shape of the individual spicule. Each will be found to have the form of a delicate, elongated, double-pointed rod. This rod is rounded in section, and its sides are more or less parallel throughout the greater part of their extent. It may be straight or slightly curved. These points should be accurately noted, since they serve in part to fix the species of the specimen under examination. Such a preparation however, in which the spicules are gathered in bundles and imbedded in a matrix, is not calculated to demonstrate spicular form with any great degree of accuracy. This is best done by completely isolating the spicules ; and since they are composed of silica, and therefore highly resistant to the action of reagents, it is easily accomplished. The sponge-flesh may be macerated in dilute hydro- chloric, sulphuric, or nitric acids, or dilute caustic potash. Perhaps the first-mentioned is best ; which- ever is used, the method of procedure is the same. Small pieces of the sponge are cut off and treated for some time with the reagent — on a water-bath if available — the sponge is completely disintegrated and the spicules form a sediment. The supernatant liquid may now be poured off, and the vessel (a test- tube for instance) filled up with water ; after allowing to settle, this is also poured off, and the residue collected on a filter paper on which it is dried — a powdery mass of spicules resulting. A little of this may now be mounted in Canada balsam. Neither glycerine nor glycerine jelly should be used as mounting media, since they may be of the same refractive index as the spicules, which would then totally disappear. All the spicules of Halichondria panicca are of the same form — this is seldom the case. Returning to the slice of dermal membrane, a i-inch ob. will show that the sponge-flesh does not form a continuous film. It is pierced at frequent intervals by round openings. These are the fine "pores" mentioned above, through which the inhalent currents stream. A slice of dermal membrane should be lightly stained with picro-carmine, and mounted in Canada balsam to form a second reference specimen — the isolated spicules being the first. The character of the skeleton other than that which supports the dermal membrane may be demonstrated by a hand-cut section at right angles to the general surface. The section can be mounted in Canada balsam unstained, and also examined in sea-water. By its aid it will be seen that the spicules are of the same form throughout, and that they are gathered into bundles which interlace to form an irregular network ; that is to say, the network is of such a character that no strong structural lines are present; its strands are of much the same thickness throughout, and run irregularly in every plane. This is a dis- tinctive feature. We now have a fairly complete knowledge of the skeleton, dermal membrane, pores and oscula. It remains to follow the currents in their passage through the sponge, and to consider the histological structure. The pocket-lens and scaljjel will demonstrate two facts, that the oscula are the orifices of large tubes into which open smaller canals, the lumen of the larger tube being eventually completely lost in the smaller ones ; and that, beneath the dermal membrane, spaces exist into which the pores open. The oscula are one end of a series of internal canals and spaces of which the pores are the other termination. Through the multitude of pores the inhalent current pass, enter a number of delicate canals, and after traversing certain spaces which are enlargements of the lumen of the canals enter a series of larger canals. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 13 finally emerging as the exhalent currents of the oscula. These currents are maintained by the lashing movements of flagella which line the walls of the enlargements just mentioned. To recapitulate. The fundamental structure of this sponge is as follows — it is composed of a sponge-flesh supported by a skeleton. The latter is composed of a network of delicate needles, gathered into inter- lacing bundles ; the former, that is the sponge-flesh, forms a mass which contains imbedded in it the skeleton, and is also honeycombed by a system of canals and spaces, all in complete intercommunica- tion, the canal system. One extreme of the canal system is the pores, the other the oscula ; and through it a continual stream of water is flowing during the life of the animal setting from the pores to the oscula. This current is maintained by the action of flagella situated on the cells lining certain enlargements in the course of the canals, known as the "flagellated chambers." The further anatomy of the sponge-flesh now remains to be dealt with under the heading histology. A more complete account of the canal system will then be given, and the sketch of the anatomy of Halichondria panicca will be complete. W. B. Hardy, B.A. GOSSIP ABOUT FORAMINIFERA. Part i. By Edward H. Robertson. IF the reader be a microscopist, hath it ever occurred to him what manifold advantages he possesses over his tr^wymrj, the geologist, the botanist, the physiologist, and the zoologist ? If not mere systematists, the abounding delights of their several pursuits may, and do, charm them into enthusiasm ; but there occur times and seasons when even their engrossing pleasures must, for obvious reasons, be laid aside or neglected. 'Tis never so with the genuine microscopist, for altogether independent of time or season — excepting in the case of serious illness — instrument in hand, he may, at his own sweet will, wander through Nature's unbounded realm, gleaning in every sweet field, and from even the most neglected corners and arid deserts, marvels of beauty to call forth his admiration and delight. Imprison him in a lonely cell and leave him but his microscope, and I trow he will have no cause to lament a lack of beauty within even its narrow confines. Nay, more, remove from its case the works of that triumph of human skill and con- trivance, a watch, and tell him to accomplish the seemingly impossible task of filling its empty com- pass with a store of marvels that would require a life-time to examine, and it shall be done. Smile not, reader — this is no exaggerated metaphor — 'tis a literal fact, and I repeat more fully that, if he were to devote every moment of a long life to the study of the minute organisms that might be con- tained within the compass of an ordinary watch case — his thread of life would be severed in the very midst of his pleasant labours. And yet, haply, liis treasures might consist solely of the very humblest forms of animal and vegetable life — foraminifera, polycystina, and diatomacese. If the longest span of human existence would be inadequate to examine in detail his countless treasures, how many volumes would he not require in which to record his observations? How, then, shall the writer, within the small compass of a few columns in Science-Gossip, hope to convey more than the barest notion of one of the groups referred to ? I shall not attempt so herculean a task, so well performed by students infinitely more capable than I, but shall content myself with ;a .brief sketch of one of these three groups — the Foraminifera. In doing this, I wish to be regarded rather as a recorder, than as an expounder of certain curious facts with which the history of these wonderful and minute organisms abounds. When we commence our examination of them, we at once plunge into an infinitude of beauty, and are lost in wonder and admiration at their extraordinarily varied and graceful forms, often sur- passing in symmetry the most costly productions of ceramic art. Yet, notwithstanding the beauty of their external coverings, would it ever have entered into the belief of the uninstructed that the inhabitants of these same beautiful structures are but homo- geneous atoms of jelly, exhibiting no more definite organisation or structure than does the drop of glue, being even destitute of any. investment? Yet such is indeed the case. These foraminifera occupy a place amongst the humblest forms of animal life, and are classed by naturalists with the Rhizopoda, that class of lowly organisms in which are placed the sponges, amcebK, polycystina, etc. The class Rhizopoda is one of the three great groups into which the sub-kingdom. Protozoa (Gr.) protos, first ; zodn, animal), is divided, and derives its name from two Greek words, rhiza, root, and pons, foot, from the fact of all the animals included in it possessing the power of throwing out, from the surface of any part of their body, processes termed " pseudopodia " (Gr. pseudos, falsity, and pons, a foot) which they employ in moving about and in obtaining food. Unlike the feet and arms of more highly- organised animals, these pseudopodia can be again withdrawn or absorbed into the substance of the body, leaving not a trace behind. This jelly-like protoplasm is termed "sarcode" (Gr. sarx, flesh, and eidos, form), and is a gelatinous, somewhat granular substance, resembling thin glue, or the white of egg. As already stated, this substance exhibits no definite organisation, or structure, "so that," to quote the words of Dr. Carpenter, " the physiologist has here a 14 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. •case in which those vital operations, which he is accustomed to see carried on by an elaborate apparatus, are performed without any special instruments what- ever— a little particle of apparently homogeneous jelly changing itself into a greater variety of forms than the fabled Proteus, laying hold of its food without members, swallowing it without a mouth, digesting it without a stomach, appropriating its nutritious material without absorbent vessels or a circulating system, moving from place to place without muscles, feeling (if it has any power to do so) without nerves, propagating itself without genital apparatus, and not ■only this, but in many instances forming shelly •coverings of a symmetry and complexity not surpassed by those of any testaceous animals." orbicular, pyramidal, straight, helical or spiral, spiral and discoidal, discoidal and produced (see Figures), and braid-like. Some forms are externally smooth, but many more are strengthened, and ornamented with ribs, spines, and bosses or tubercles, sometimes curiously sculptured, sometimes imperforate, except by a single orifice, but more frequently punctured by numerous holes, termed foramina, from whence they are called foraminifera : these foramina being often symmetrically disposed, and greatly adding to their beauty. Difficult as it may be to realise that in the coverings of such minute creatures the same con- trivance to afford support to the walls under pressure has been applied as in the case of the cephalapoda, mollusca, echini, &c., it is undoubtedly the case, and in Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Fig. 5- Fig. 6. Fig. 7- Fig. 8. Fig. 9. Fig. 10. Fig. II. Fig. 12. Fig. 14- Fig. 16. Fig. 17- oraminifera. — Figs. 3, Geoponus stella-borealis (after removal of shell by acid); 4, Polystornellii regina: $, Lageiia gracilis; 6, Lagena lains; 7, Vertebratina striata; 8, Entoaclenia globosa ; 9, E. squamosa; 10, Flabellina rtigosa; 11, Cristel- laria lanceolata; 12, Textitlaria. Marice ; 13, Rotalia Bcccarii ; 14, Polymoyphina coinplanata; 15, Spirocidiita Carpen- teri; 16, Quinque-loculina ; 17, P. Fichtdliaiia. Wonderful enough it will appear that these molecules ■ of jelly, not invested by any membrane or integument, can exist in a fluid without disintegration, but in- finitely more marvellous that such jelly atoms, desti- tute of organs, should construct habitations exhibiting previously unsuspected and often most elaborate structure, frequently traversed by a complicated system of canals, which seem to have an important func- tion in the nutrition of the creature, and rivalling in beauty the most exquisite sculptured coverings of the " testacea," i.e. shell-covered animals ; yet so it is, and richly does their singular beauty merit all the enthusiastic attention lavished upon them. These tiny shells present an immense variety of forms, these shells, so small that thousands, or even tens of thousands, may be contained in a child's thimble, we yet here, also, see combined ornament and utility, lightness and strength, these external characters being usually so well marked as to be readily recognised, even with a common hand magnifier, notwithstanding their minuteness. Some of the simple forms, monothalamia, " single- chambered," consist of a single chamber only, as in the Lagena and Gromia types. Examples of these are shown in Figs. 5, 6, 8, '9. The greater number are, however, complex structures — these latter being called polythalamous, i.e., *' many chambered," each chamber of thcshell being distinct ; HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. IS' communication between the several jelly bodies being afforded either through a single opening between the divisions or septa, or, more frequently, through a series of punctures by which they are perforated. Each tiny shell may thus be considered to contain a colony of semi-independent beings. The method of increase in these shells appears to be an extremely simple one. From the original body of sarcode, a second, with its covering, is formed, and overlaps the first and so on, these shell-encrusted globules ever en- larging, and being developed on a straight or curved line in lineal order, or alternately in a braid or twist- like arrangement as may be seen in Fig. 12. These shells are included in the family Enallostagidic. Another family, the Entoniostagidic, exhibits the chambers arranged in a double series in a spiral form. The J/iliola family includes those shells in which the chambers are arranged around a common perpen- dicular axis, in such a manner that each chamber occupies the entire length of the shell. (Figs. 15, 16.) {To be coftti lined.) BIRD-LIFE. By Dr. Crespi. Formerly Editor of the " Sanitary Revietu.'^ SEVERAL years ago, after a dispiriting struggle with fortune, I left Birmingham and went to Exeter for six weeks. It was the 28th of April, and in South Devon the trees were in full leaf and summer was come. Several times a week, in the evening, I used to stroll through St. David's and along the Stoke Cannon Road, across Cowley Bridge, and out into the country. To the right were the richly- wooded heights, which delight the visitor approaching St. David's station from Taunton and Barnstaple, and to the left stretched the beautiful fields and noble woods of Upton Pynes, the well-known seat of Sir Stafford Northcote. The weather was, with some exceptions, charming, and again and again I wandered on for hours enjoying in perfection the sunshine, the soft air, the refreshing verdure, and, last but not least, the ceaseless songs of the birds. Devon is not usually considered rich in bird -life, so at least naturalist friends tell me ; the nightingale, rather an over-rated bird, I fancy, never ventures west of the Axe, and some other species of familiar songsters are not com- mon ; but, however that may be, never, in the course of a life not very long, though varied enough, have I heard such inspiriting and continuous' singing as that May and June. After the embittered strife of London, and the dingy skies and noisy streets of Bir- airingham, there was a seductiveness, a peacefulness, in those Devon rambles that I can never forget. Seldom did I meet any other wanderer, and for hours I seemed to have the country all to myself. To me, though I knew country life perfectly, having passed my childhood in a village, — it was a new experience, and as I listened to the rich notes of the blackbird and the throstle, the warble of the robin, the blackcap, the whitethroat and the hedge accentor,, the melodious trill of the skylark, and the clear ringing call of the cuckoo, I wondered what country life would be worth without its birds. More brilliant climates than ours can be found ; lands too where the vegetation, the scenery as a whole, and the mountains and forests have indescribable attractions, but where can you find such verdant valleys and deep sunnyTern- adorned lanes as in Devon, or on the Welsh Borders, on one of those days {alas, so rare) when, as Lord Lytton says, all is so calm and beautiful below, and so blue and bright above ; one of those English summer days with no peers elsewhere. I was once hurrying to America, and in the train sat a Mormon elder, a prosaic enough person, intent on money- getting and making converts, but when he spoke of English woodland scenery, the American, who had visited many lands and mixed with many strange people, became almost eloquent ; his unprepossessing, face lighted up, his dull eye brightened, and he poured forth a torrent of praise on scenes so beautiful and peace-giving, that he doubted if the rest of the world contained anything like them; he, at any rate, had seen nothing to compare with them, nor have I. You cannot study birds in a museum : no matter how admirably the little creatures have been stuffed, nor how faithful the adherence to natural form and. bearing; the resemblance is really not closer than, between a corpse and a living, moving man. The only place to study birds is in their native haunts, loving them as did St. Francis, knowing them as did Mrs. Schimmelpenninck. Animals instinctively find out those who love them and feel for them, and they remember their friends with a tenacity rarely ap- proached by human friendships. Think of Sir Walter Scott's love for his dogs, and of their attach- ment to him— happy if only he noticed them, and content to wait for hours for the walk so greatly enjoyed. Once get the affection of a dog and you may count upon it : it knows no diminution, no change, and ends only with its life. In the rapturous song of the happy birds in May and June lies half the pleasure of a country ramble : the winter gloom is over, the foliage in the south- west is at its best, the decline of the year, with its golden harvest and lengthening shadows, is not come ; and the birds, forgetful of the past and ignorant of the future, make the best of their opportunities. A little thoughtfulness in feeding birds in frosty weather would preserve the lives of immense numbers. Many species cannot eat crumbs, but require animal food, and for their benefit I shall introduce a letter that appeared in the "Times" on this subject. It is dated January 24th, and signed J. P. Nunn, and refers to some letters on the supply of food in winter: it speaks for itself. "In the i6 HARDWICKKS SCIENCE-GOSSIP. interest of little birds, may I add the word meat to berries? For some years, in cold weather, I have been in the habit of feeding little birds, and, in addition to their breakfast of bread and corn, I give them, as a standing dish a joint or two of beef, which I hang in a tree well out of the way of cats. The first supply of several pounds which I hung up at the beginning of December, is now quite exhausted, nothing being left but the bone. New Zealand mutton is not dear at 7.\d. a pound, but meat as much to the taste of my feathered guests may be had at half that price. I fear birds have more enemies than friends, but if only one friend in each parish would feed them in this way a great number would be saved from starvation in severe weather," Often in other days I have sat looking over the restless waves of the sea surrounding Lundy, when the birds had come in and the great gulls and Solan geese were darting like rays of light over the water below me, or soaring far above my head, and though the musicaLnotes of the Crediton and Exeter lanes did not fall in such rich variety on my ear, I watched with keen interest the huge birds intent on their business, untiring in their activity, and investing the landscape and the sea-scape, which might otherwise have been common-place enough, with a charm pecu- liarly its own. Few birds are more majestic than the Solan goose, which, in rapidly decreasing numbers, breeds on Lundy — the lowest latitude, report says, where it ijiakes its nest ; as it sails along over the deep green waters, in the bright sunshine, it conveys a sense of tremendous power, of lordly contempt for space and time that makes feeble mortals envy it. Half-an-hour and those powerful pinions would traverse the distance from Lundy to Barnstaple, an hour or a little more and its vast strength would bear it to Cardiff or St. David's Cathedral : it is its own express train, and, calm or windy, dark or clear, its rapidity of flight and indifference to distance never desert it. Only think of the keenness of observation and acute intelligence of birds : watch them eating crumbs scattered for them outside a window, and then admit how frolicsome are their gambols, how much character their conduct discloses. Fruit in Chili and other parts of South America is reported to have been in 1887, left entirely untouched by birds, while the sheep and cattle which were imprudent enough to feast upon it, paid with their lives for their temerity. These facts rest upon the high authority of the "Pacific Archives of Medicine and Surgery," and prove that the unfailing instinct of birds with respect to the wliolesomeness of fruit is, as Michelet remarks, in his great work on birds, frequently an excellent guide for human beings. It is possible, though far from proved, that the peculiarities in the fruit of different years may have something to do with the outbreak and varying mortality of cholera epidemics. We hardly understand, many of us, how supremely happy and busy birds are. No human community is more actively engaged ; no man or woman goes to work with such merry voice and unaffected delight. It is a sad thought that birds of prey, in the no doubt wise economy of nature, destroy enormous numbers of little songsters every year. It has been computed that 20,000 sparrow-hawks live in the United Kingdom ; if they, on the average, consume two little birds a day apiece, not fewer than 14,000,000 are thus destroyed every year. That we cannot help, but we can prevent the wanton and objectless destruction of these little messengers of good and peace. No fashion more hideous, more savouring of savage instincts and barbarous tastes can be conceived than adorning the hat, and fastening up the dress with dead birds. Ostrich plumes are undoubtedly most beautiful, and as they are now produced solely for purposes of dress on the great ostrich farms of the Cape, their use may pass without question, but to pin on a goldfinch, a yellow-hammer, a robin — though this atrocity I have never seen — a chaffinch, or a green linnet, is enough to make us wonder if we are more enlightened and refined than some Indian Brave decorating his neck with a string of the formidable claws of the grizzly bear. The great feature of bird- life is its constant movement. Watch a bird hopping across the lawn, mark its bright eye, observe its graceful actions and jDerfect symmetry of form, and then, when you have shot it and put a stop for ever to the quick beatings of its happy little heart, go up and look at the limp, tiny form lying still and bleeding on the ground : The contrast is too painful to dwell upon. It is more startling, because human life is confessedly so full of sorrow, than seeing some superbly proportioned and active man in the midst of his labours, and soon after standing by his bedside and gazing on the cold rigid face of death : all the hopes and fears of life over : that marvellous mechan- ism, the most perfect and complicated structure in the world, out of gear, and the spirit that gave beauty and interest to that glorious form and active mind gone on its last long journey we know not where. But the human being hopes that for him there remains a hereafter, a country where, though work will never cease, it will be less exhausting and worrying than here : a land where there will be rest ; where, in short, the weary struggler will find that peace which the storm-tost soul of Dante sought in vain on earth. The little bird may have no such future. His brief existence perhaps ends here, and when his bright eye dims and his warm heart becomes cold and still, his enjoyment may be for ever over. Destroyed for the good of man, killed to supply necessary food, less objection may be made, but slaughtered to bedeck the bonnets and hats of people who make themselves hideous in consequence, who jjerchance have never seen the bird at home in his early summer happiness, who pay little heed to his fascinating ways, and care HARD WJCKE' S SCIENCE- G OSSIF. 17 oiothing for his surroundings, that is indeed too terrible. A touching and well-known passage occurs -Jn Thomas de Quincey's works, in which he patheti- cally describes the death of a feeble little bird, and the not unnatural emotions which its last attempt to flutter and sing called forth. No wonder ! And when we think of what country life owes to birds, when I remember the unmixed pleasure they have given me, the peace which the merry songs bring to the soul, I greatly marvel that anyone, calling himself civilised and refined, can seek pleasure in killing the winged messengers, which seem to belong more to Heaven than earth, and whose wholesale destruction would transform the melodious groves and mossy lanes of England into something like the silent, uninteresting and depressing wilds of Australia. There are few pictures more fascinating than the life-long devotion of Gilbert White, of Selborne, to the denizens of that secluded and little changed district. The closeness of his observations, the accuracy of his generalisations and conclusions have never been improved upon : and his graceful letters remain, and always must remain, among the treasures of the language. Again, look at VVaterton's life in the country, reading the mysteries which none knew better how to unravel, and, lastly, Frank Buckland's passionate love for animal life. There was nothing coarse or mean in his reverent eyes in anything that had come from the hand of the Creator. Animals, birds and insects were to him fellow-creatures, fellow-servants, fellow-worshippers of God. Then poor Thomas Edward, the humble Scotch naturalist, of Low Shore, Banff; who can refuse to sympathise v/ith his self-sacrificing study of nature ? Night after night in that bleak northern latitude watching creatures which could not be approached by day, and lying for hours in a cramped position not to alarm the timid little things that centuries of oppression had taught to regard man as their bitterest foe. Does not that poor shoe-maker's life teach a lesson of constancy and untiring industry that more than redeems the study of nature from the neglect at times heaped upon it ? The love of birds doubles the joy of living. Wimborne. SCIENCE-GOSSIP. Prof. H. G. Seeley, F.R.S., is about to deliver a course of lectures on the Practical Study of the Geology of the Country round London. This course is given at the request of students of the London Geological Field Class, and information concerning them may be obtained from Mr. William Dunn, 21 King William Street, Strand, W.C. Royal Institution. — The following are the lecture arrangements before Easter : — Prof. Dewar, six lectures (adapted to a juvenile auditory) on Clouds and Cloudland ; Prof G. J. Romanes, twelve lectures constituting the second part of a course on Before and After Darwin (the evidences of organic evolution and the theory of natural selection) ; Prof. J. W. Judd, four lectures on the Metamorphoses of Minerals ; Dr. Sidney Martin, four lectures on the poisonous action of Albuminoid Bodies, including those formed in digestion ; Prof. J. H. Middleton, four lectures on Houses and their Decoration, from the Classical to the Mediaeval Period ; Prof. Ernst Pauer, four lectures on the Characters of the Great Composers and the Characteristics of their Works (with illustrations on the pianoforte) ; and eight lectures by the Rt. Hon. Lord Rayleigh on Experimental Optics (polarisation ; the wave theory). The Friday evening meetings will begin on January 25th, when a discourse will be given by Prof. G. H. Darwin ; succeeding discourses will probably be given by Prof. W. C. Mcintosh, Sir William Thomson, Prof. A. W. Riicker, Mr. Harold Crichton Brown, Prof. Oliver Lodge, Prof. Archibald Geikie, the Rev. Alfred Ainger, the Rt. Hon. Lord Rayleigh, and other gentlemen. We are sorry to have to record the death of another valued contributor to our columns — Mr. Henry Lee, F.L. S., of aquarium fame, at the age of sixty years. He was known also in scientific literature for his entertaining book entitled "The Octopus; or the Devil-Fish of Fiction and Fact." Mr. Lee was the first curator of the Brighton Aquarium. It has been found that the retina absorbs light in much the same way that luminous paint becomes " fluorescent." This was beautifully demonstrated as follows : — The gaze was directed for some time at an object brightly illuminated by an arc light, or at the arc itself, and then the eye was turned to a camera — an accurate photograph of the object seen was the result. The experiment can be performed with the fresh dead eye of an animal, and the gleam of a cat's eye in the dark is probably due to this light- absorbing power. Any one who has examined an eye will be aware of the fact that there is a brightly iridescent coat at the back, known as the tapetum. The function of this is not at all obvious, but some time ago a theory was started which then seemed improbable that this served as a reflector to catch and concentrate the faint light of a starlight night, and condense it into a beam to illuminate and render more visible objects towards which the eye was directed. The present discovery shows that this old theory was not altogether without foundation. Messrs. Swinburne have brought out a new invention for obtaining filaments for incandescent lamps from cabbage leaves. The essential novelty of the process consists in employing vegetable fibre for the '* filament " or thread. Almost any plant leaf will do : but, after experiment, it has been found that the leaf of the common cabbage answers the i8 HA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSSIF. purpose best, as it is tough, and fairly homogeneous in structure. Each leaf is first separately examined by polarised light to detect any flaws or holes, the smallest pin-hole rendering the leaf practically useless. It is then soaked in vinegar for twenty-four hours in order to neutralise the alkali in the fibre, and, after thorough washing, is ready for the next process. It is now laid out flat in a solution of mercury bromide ; a rod of specially-prepared shellac is then taken, and, after being raised to a high potential condition by treatment with a silk exciter, it is put into contact with the mercury solution. By this means the leaf is gradually electrolised, the potassium and sodium in the fibre combining with the mercury to form a coating of amalgam. In this state the leaf is a capital conductor, and the inventors have even succeeded in using it as a substitute for lead in secondary batteries. A heavy current is now passed through it so as to carbonise the vegetable fibre, the current being increased till every trace of amalgam is volatalised. It is then cut into filaments, and each is forced through a draw plate. As it is not of sufficient "resistance," resort has to be had to a process called " flashing." The consists in passing a mixture of ammonia and hydrogen gases over it while it is heated by the electric current. The resistance rapidly rises, and at the proper point the current is automatically cut off by an ingenious switch arrange- ment. The filament is now bent into horse-shoe form, and is ready to seal into the bulb. Perhaps the most important discovery made by Messrs. Swin- burne, is the enormous increase in light that can be obtained for a given current by employing an atmos- phere of slightly compressed oxygen in place of the complete vacuum hitherto customary ; and though by this means the life of the lamp may be slightly shortened, it is not considered important in view of the great gain in light. If this process, beautifully simple as a laboratory experiment, should prove commercially successful, large quantities of picked and selected leaf will be required, and Messrs. Swin- burne contemplate inviting tenders from some of the leading growers in the county. The bulk of the plant has been already erected, and Messrs. Cromp- ton & Co., of Chelmsford, who are working overtime, have got the machinery well in hand, and hope to complete delivery by the 24th inst. MICROSCOPY. "Journal of Microscopy."— (Edited by Alfred Allen.) The last number of this well-known journal contains the following papers, besides a host of notes, notices, &c. : — " The Air-bladder of Fishes considered as a Degenerate Lung," by Mrs. Alice Boddington ; " Development of the Tadpole," by J. W. Gate- house ; "Fogs," by Beatrice Taylor; "Economic Entomology," by James A. Forster ; " On the Male Generative Organs of Two Species of Cypris (C Cina-a and C. tninuta)" by T. B. Rosseter ; " Pseudo- Helminths," by Jabez Hogg ; " The l^Iicroscope and, How to use it," by V. A. Lalham. Another Evening with the Eoyal Micro- scopical Society. — The Microscopical Society may congratulate themselves upon the success with which their "scientific evening," held in the library of King's College, on the aSth of November, passed off, in spite of the unpropitious weather. The principal item of novelty was the display, on a screen, in front of the o.\y-hydrogen lantern, in a darkened room adjoining, of numerous negatives of microscopic objects photographed from the originals direct : — diatoms, bacilli, insect preparations, pathological specimens and botanical sections, all furnished illus- trations of how soon, and how well. Dr. Crookshank's suggestions and example, at a former "scientific evening," had been followed up by Mr. A. Pringle and Mr. Charles Lees Curtis, who both deserve great credit. This display was the finest of the kind that I have ever seen or heard of. Only fancy ! the image of half a frustule of Amphipleiira pellucida was thrown on to the screen, so as to appear three feet long, or more, with the markings as distinctly shown as the bars of a Venetian window-blind. I should guess the magnification at not less than. 20,000 diameters. Has anything been done like this before ? I think not. I could mention many other objects they showed in rapid succession equally well ; but the naming of this one, so admirably displayed, gives an idea of the advanced stage of micro-photography these gentlemen have reached. In the library, very many curious things were to be- seen. There was a fine specimen of Braula ccccUy the rare parasite of the hive bee (something like a. small sheep tick), shown by Mr. Mainland. He referred me to an article in SciENCE-GossiP (May 188 1), by Mr. Fedarb, on Braula ; and I have looked it up, with pleasure ; but I think Mr. Mainland might perhaps have something more to say about the insect, if he tried. Then there were numerous clever dissections of insects, one in particular, by Mr. Fitcli (of the golden-banded fly), was universally admired, Mr. Rousselet had a new rotifer ; Liuiiiias Cormiella. There were also other exhibits of rotifers, &c., by several gentlemen. Eye sections were numerous, of moth, spider, tadpole, and lamprey (pineal eye), Mr. Beck showed Aniphiplcura pellucida, and the cyclosis in Vallisneria. Messrs. Watson had an excellent display of fine pathological specimens ; and a grand slide of arranged diatoms, butterfly scales, &c. Mr. R. T. Lewis had a drawing of the rare coccid, Lccamiuiii acnminatioii, from Biitish Guiana, but his most interesting contribution was a number of unknown larva-, from Natal, alive. They appeared to be lepidopterous, and were remarkable from the fact that they had constructed portable houses for HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OS SI P. 19 themselves, out of the grass stems upon which they feed, of an extraordinary character, looking much like the cases of caddis worms. It appears that the Caffirs regard the swallowing of one of these grubs by any ox that may be feeding on the grass where they live, as certain death to the poor ox. Within certain limits, upon the table before him, Mr. Lewis •allowed these curious grubs to trot about, and they yielded no end of interest to the observers. Then, there was the pupa of a cat flea, showing, apparently, that the statement Mr. Lowe makes in his monograph of the anatomy, &c., of the blow-fly, that "all the tissues of the larva undergo degeneration, and the imaginal tissues are re-developed from cells which ■originate from the disintegrated parts of the larva," (page 116), holds good as regards the flea also. Mr. Michael told me that this view is pretty generally accepted by scientific people, as applying to all, or ;almost all, insects. Well, it may be ; but I know one person, claiming to be thoroughly acquainted with all that is worth knowing about insects, who smiles incredulously when I talk to him of this fact. Mr. Michael had on view a very beautiful dissection •of a small Staphylinus. The Rev. T. King showed two fine specimens of flies in amber under his microscope. How many thousands of years had they been entombed there ? Ah ! and yet they are as ^^erfectly preserved as if they had been done up in balsam only yesterday. Several Fellows had re- markable specimens of foraminifera, &c. Mr. Priest showed tiie inner casts of some of these organisms. There was also a living spider exhibited by Mr. R. Facer, showing the action of the spinnerets. Mr. E. J. Smith showed numerous fine sections of rare minerals, and Mr. Suffolk, a scale oi Morphomeiielaiis, under very high magnification. —3". J. Mclntire. Frontal Sac of the MusciD.t:.— The author of this important paper is Mr. W, Jenkinson, of the Sheffield Microscopical Society. ZOOLOGY. Anodonta Cygnea.— Ml". Roberts seems to have •expected me to have replied to some strictures made by a correspondent on my paper, entitled "A Day's Shell Collecting," which was published in SciENCE- GossiP last year. I had already virtually replied in my article, since I cannot class Mr. Webb with anyone else but Dr. Woodward for his knowledge of what constitutes a species and a variety. I scarcely then thought it worth my trouble, and I had not now said anything had not Mr. Roberts again opened the subject, especially, as Mr. Webb so well defended the points that ruffled him as to decry with all his force the " variety-mongerers," and at the same time want to make a variety of a species, a point of impudence which I may say they have never reached. In point of fact, Mr. Webb's ambition seems to me that of becoming a king, as it were, for his good works, among the race of conchologists whom he apparently so heartily despises. I can but refer Mr. Webb, since I am not going to occupy your space in teaching the elementary principles of zoological nomenclature, to one of the more modern zoological text-books, as Claus, for example, in order to give him more definite ideas as to what constitutes a species and what a variety- Mr. Roberts has very rightly remarked that "Dr. Woodward and a few other antediluvians . . . might as well argue that all the species of continental anodons are one, and that Unio tu /nidus, Uiiio pidortim, &c., are all one," and I might add to these all the Pisidia too, and Limuixa pcregra, and LimncEa aitricularia also. I am here again only going to make the dogmatic assertion, that A cygiica differs in its anatomy very essentially from A. anatina. I am not going to state these differences, since I shall doubtless publish on them before long in " The Journal of Conchology." But, in the meantime, Mr. Webb can easily dissect one or two for himself, and then when he has gained a scientific knowledge of what he is talking about we shall be pleased to hear from him again, A personal know- ledge of a subject from actual work is of far greater value than raking up a host of old authorities, Mr, Webb. Had you been a little more modern, you would have known that on p. 65 of the fifth volume of " The Annals and Magazine of Natural History," Mr. Lloyd described some anatomical differences between Anodonta cygnea and A. anatina. — y, IV. Williams. Anodonta Cygnea, Linne. — Mr. George Roberts appears to forget that opinion, however weighty, is not evidence ; and that authorities were quoted in my note not to prove that Anodonta anatina was a bad species, but to show that a statement to such effect could not rightly be called an " uncanonical assertion." Again, the fact that earlier conchologists confounded together two species of Helix is no argument whatever that they also confounded two species of Anodonta. The point in question depends upon the recognised meaning of the word Species. Zoologists and botanists of the present day know perfectly well that there is naturally no strict line of demarkation between closely allied forms which they place together and call a Genus ; but, for convenience in classification, the name species is kept by them to denote a form which can be separated from its rela- tions by well-ascertained anatomical diff'erences. Unfortunately, there are many shell-collectors who do not know this, and the few that have mastered it no more understand why and for what the term "variety" was instituted than the mass of their brethren do. The reason is not very doubtful, for these collectors follow Uke sheep the precepts of certain Continental and the Leeds schools, which 20 HA RD WICKE' S SCIENCE- G OSSIP. recognise what they call a variety created by a dis- ciple ignorant of Zoology out of some casual variation, interesting, perhaps, but so insignificant that the name of its describer — who is usually conceited enough to allow it to be printed — is covered with ridicule. An example of ignorance, worse, perhaps, than this, is to be seen in the note next but one before that of Mr. George Roberts, for here its writer says the balance is in favour of according Helix hoj-teitsis generic rank, — Wilfred Mark Webb. H. ViRGATA, VAR. Alba. — It may interest Mr. Brockton Tomlin to know that I have specimens of this variety from Dorking, Rusk, co. Dublin, and have lately received two from Mr. Thos. F. Burrows, found at Brading, Isle of Wight. From the Dublin locality I have the same variety of H. Pisana, a still more uncommon shell.—/'. G. Fenn, Islnvorth. BOTANY. The British Moss-Flora. — All botanists will be glad to hear that Part II. of this remarkable work has just been issued. It is devoted to the important family Grimmiaceffi, and contains eight exquisitely drawn plates showing the characters and microscopical structures of each species. Never before has our native moss-flora been so carefully figured and described, and that by an acknowledged authority on the subject. These parts can only be obtained from the author, Dr. R. Braithwaite, at 303 Clapham Road. Plants near Clifton.— In Science-Gossip, November, page 259, I gave a list of upwards of fifty wild flowers noticed in a day's ramble in the vicinity of Clifton. In Science-Gossip, December, page 279, Mr. James Walter White disputed the identity of six plants in courteous yet authoritative words ; in reply, I beg to state as follows : (i.) Pimpinella jtiagna.- — The specimen I alluded to was not actually from the gorge of the Avon. It was a plant of great size growing in a cutting within a few miles of Clifton Bridge (Somerset side). I stated my reason for applying the specific name, and still maintain the opinion. I was puqDOsely vague with precise habitat in this and other cases ; I have learned that it is necessary, to prevent extermination. (2.) Anthrisciis vulgaris. — I think Mr. White might find this plant next season on the waste grounds beyond Leigh Court. (3.) Calamiiitha nepeta. — Tlie plant I gathered was a distinct variety of C. officinalis, new to me. Having identified the specimen on my own account, I forwarded it to a collector with an exten- sive herbarium. It was new to him ; and he replied, " There is no doubt about your C. nepeta." Perhaps Mr. White will search the quarries he knows so well for confirmation of this. It may be a new plant will be added to the local flora. (4.) " Wormwood " was a loose term ; Artemisia vulgaris is what I saw. (5.) Diplotaxis 7nuraUs certainly appears under two distinct forms at Clifton. I am loath to believe the two species named in my notes are not there ; the leaves and stems are so different. If Mr. White, knowing the district well, is quite certain, I will accept the correction. (6.) Thalictrum alpinum was a palpable slip for T. flavum. I cannot account for having written the wrong specific name. It "met the eye " at some distance from Clifton, not on the downs. I deliberately mis-stated precise locality, perhaps wrongly ; for I did not at the time realise that Somerset and Gloucester were divided by the Avon, and that, by transferring plants from one side to the other, the distribution of the two counties' flora was interfered with. With one glaring excep- tion, my notes were, I think, substantially correct. I am obliged to Mr. White for giving me the oppor- tunity of avowing the error. I do not claim great critical knowledge ; the wider my experience, the more profoundly ignorant I feel. " We see through a glass darkly," picking up what grains of learning we may attain. I hope this will be also considered *' bright and chatty." — Wayfarer. Folk-lore of Plants. — In some parts of the Principality, a common Welsh name for the fox- gloves (folk's-gloves) is Menyg yr Ellyll (comp. elQ? i.e. the fairies' gloves. — G. Rees, Aberystwyth. White Varieties op Plants. — I generally make a note of variations from the normal colour in plants when I see them, and a few remarks on the subject, perhaps, will not be considered out of place. For four years past I have observed a number of white specimens of Stachys palustris, the flowers of the usual size, and pure white in colour. The normal type flourished near, but not in the same clump. A further departure occurred, which would seem almost structural ; the upper lip of the corolla, instead of being entire, as I believe it always is in the coloured Stachys palustris, was deeply cleft. I should be glad to know if this form has been observed elsewhere by field botanists. Veronica charncrdrys sometimes sports to white ; a patch in a meadow near here has shown white flowers for three successive years. The flowers are distinctly smaller than the blue specimens which grow among them, but from different roots. I am inclined to think that cross fertilisation may be the cause here, pollen from some white flower near (not Veronica) affecting the colour ; certainly soil has nothing to do in accounting for the change. Gera- nium niolle, too, 1 have often seen growing with pure white blooms in company with plants of the usual colour. The question is a very interesting one, and needs much fuller investigation. — F. J. Porter, Per- ranai-iuorthal, Cornwall. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP, 21 GEOLOGY, &C. Discovery of a Conifer in Chalk. — I have recently found in the chalk of our neighbourhood, some interesting specimens of cones in a conifer, allied to Taxus. R. Etheridge, F.R.S., of the British Museum, thus writes:— " The chalk specimen is a cone probably of a Taxus.'' — B, Fiff'ard, Hemcl- Hempstead. The Geologists' Association. — The last num- ber of the Proceedings of the above society contains the following papers : — " On Palaeozoic Arcidae," by J. Logan Lobley ; "Notes on Pterodactyles," by E, T, Newton; "Observations on the Natural History of Gypsum," by J. G. Goodchild ; and, ■"The Clays of Bedfordshire," by A. C. G. Cameron. It also contains short reports of the ordinary meetings. Preserving Gault Fossils. — I should advise J. H. A. Verinder to apply to his fossils, as soon as possible after they are drj', a thin coat of ' ' Picture Mastic Varnish," using a soft camel's-hair brush. I have now some fossils taken from the gault at Folke- stone nearly twenty years ago, in a perfect state of preservation, whereas those that did not undergo the process, crumbled away in the course of a few weeks. — W. E. Windtis. The Underground Geology of London. — At a recent meeting of the Geological Society, Mr. W. "VVhitaker, F.R.S., F.G.S., exhibited a series of specimens from the ,deep boring at Streatham, and made some remarks upon the results obtained, of which -the following is an abstract : — After passing through lo feet of gravel, &c., 153 of London clay, 88J of Lower London Tertiaries, 623 of chalk (the least thickness in any of the deep borings in and near London), 28| of Upper Greensand, and 188J of gault, at the depth of io8i| feet hard limestone, .mostly with rather large oolitic grains, was met with. This, with alternations of a finer character, sandy and clayey, lasted for only 38^ feet, being much less than the thickness of the Jurassic beds, either at Richmond or at Meux's boring. The general character of the bores showed a likeness to the Forest Marble, and the occurrence of Ostrca acuminata agreed therewith. At the depth of 11 20 feet the tools entered a set of beds of much the same character as those that had 'been found beneath Jurassic beds at Richmond, and beneath gault at Kentish Town and at Crossness. The softer and more clayey components were not brought up ; the harder consist of fine-grained ■compact sandstones, greenish-grey, sometimes with purplish mottlings or bandings, and here and there wholly of a dull reddish tint. With these there occur hard, clayey, and somewhat sandy beds, which are not calcareous, whilst most of the sandstones are. Thin veins of calcite are sometimes to be seen, and at others small concretionary calcareous nodules; but no trace of a fossil has been found. The bedding is shown, both by the bands of colour, and by the tendency of the stone to fracture, to vary generally from about 20° to 30°. In the absence of evidence it is hard to say what these beds are, and the possibilities of their age seem to range from Trias to Devonian. It is to be hoped that this question may be solved, as on it depends that of the possibility of the presence of Coal-measures in the district ; and Messrs. Docwra, the contractors of the works, have with great liberality undertaken to continue the boring-operations at their own expense for at least another week. ' Details of the section will be given in a forthcoming Geological Survey Memoir, in which, moreover, the subject of the old rocks under London will be treated somewhat fully. NOTES AND QUERIES. The Sunflower. — Are Mr. Lett's observations to be taken as conclusive, and the common belief which Moore gave expression to in the well-known lines, " As the sunflower turns to her God when he sets. The same look which she turned when he rose — " to be dismissed as a poet's fancy? Dr. M. C. Cooke in his very interesting little book entitled " Freaks and Marvels of Plant Life," referring to heliotropism, observes as follows : ' ' Sir Joseph Hooker says, that when traversing the prairies with Professor Asa Gray, in 1877, he watched the position of the leaves of many hundred plants from the window of a railway car, and after some time persuaded himself that the younger, more erect leaves especially, had their faces parallel approximately to the meridian line. At the same time he says that he convinced himself that the flower heads of the varieties of the great Heliaiithoid Composite, such as that which we call the sunflower, that grew in hosts on the prairies did follow the sun's motion in the heavens to a very appreciable degree, their morning and evening positions being reversed."* A neighbour of my own is a grower of sunflowers. He is a very intelligent and observant man, whose chief delight is the cultivation of his garden. He assured me that he is convinced from careful observa- tion that the sunflower turns towards the sun. I suggested that we should take a turn in his garden, as the sun was shining brightly at the time. Every sunflower, except one, in his garden had the face of its flowers turned towards the south whence the sun was shining at the time. I only mention this as a casual, and, if you please, veiy inadequate piece of evidence and ask you to take it quantum valcat. The subject is so replete with interest that I have felt justified in sending you the above remarks, in the hope that some of your readers, who have time at command, will be induced to make careful obsei^va- tions, and give us the benefit of them. — W. G. IVheatcroft. A Good Hunting-Ground for Orchids in Kent. — On very many occasions, both in late spring and early summer, I have spent a consider- able time on the hills and in the woods of Kent — botanizing. In the course of these rambles, the locali- * J. D. Hooker, in " Gardener's Chronicle," January 15, 1881 . 22 MA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OS SIP. ties of which are widespread, in one respect none has yielded me such an amount of interest, within a very narrow limit, as the district just round the small, peaceful village of Crundale, which lies nestling in a valley about two and a half miles east of Wye, and two miles south of Chilham. The village lies, as I have stated, in a valley ; one long range of downs runs on its eastern side, and, on its western, another range, both of which have thick woods on their sides in many parts. The exact locality of which I wish to speak occupies an area of very few miles — merely a radius of not more than one mile from the village itself, and my object for drawing atten- tion to the spot is that it is one of the richest for orchids which, in the small space, it has been my good fortune to visit. Amongst the masses of flowers that carpet the woods, Listera ovata (common wavy blade) grows profusely, its long dense spike of pale greenish flowers, and its two large ovate leaves, growing opposite each other at a height of about four inches from the ground, forming a very conspicuous object amongst the tangling underwood. By its side, between the bluebells and primroses, from amongst the thick bed of Alercurialis perennis, I have gathered quantities of Orchis inasciila (early purple orchis), whose magnificent spikes of purple blossoms form such an exquisite contrast of colour to all the plants surrounding them. One drawback there is to this plant — it has a most offensive scent. .Plentiful too is the lesser butterfly orchis {Habcnaria hifolia) and the spotted palmate orchis {0. macidata), the former bearing a handsome lax spike of delicate yellowish white blossoms — deliciously scented towards night — the latter, a short dense spike of rose-coloured flowers. The leaves of the latter are the handsomest of all the orchids, I consider ; they are of a beautiful soft tone of green, with rich deep purplish-brown spots — the whole very glossy. In a sheltered hollow on the downs above Crundale, on the east about a quarter of a mile beyond the church, is a spot covered with Orchis fusca (great dark-winged orchis), both a rare and local treasure. I found two specimens of the same plant on the opposite hills, but they were nothing like so fine. This plant grows about 1-3 feet hi"h,has large oval oblong leaves, mostly radical, and a short dense, obtuse spike, usually of a deep maroon brown colour at the apex, where the flowers are unopen. Below the flowers are a delicate pale purple, sometimes almost white. Its scent is something like vanilla. Ophrys apifcra (bee orchis), Op/irys araiiifera (early spider orchis), and Aceras anthropophora (man orchis) grow abundantly on the same downs, just at the foot of the hills especially. All are local and, with the exception of O. apifera, not over common. Of Hcrviininm moii- orchis (musk orchis) and Epipactis latifolia (broad- leaved helleborine) only one specimen of each has come to my hand ; the latter, though, is fairly plentiful. Gymnadcnia conopsca is common. Other kinds do grow there, but, as yet, I have not found them. I have taken the opportunity of writing these few lines in order to let those, who did know before of a good orchid district, know where to hunt if they wish to procure good specimens. — K. E. Styan. Flowers for Drawing-room and Boudoir. — In the selection of vases for these rooms, those of medium size should never be exceeded, unless the room be of unusual proportions. We much prefer vases of small dimensions for every-day use ; any vase that is large enough to hold an ordinary -sized bouquet bein" ample, in our opinion. On special occasions those of larger size could be used, perhaps, with advantage when it is desirable to congregate a larger quantity of flowers together. Greater variety in form and material of the vases that are utilised would be admissible, no two in fact need be alike in any way. Many vases that would be too massive and heavy for the dinner-table could be turned to a good account for special occasions. For general purposes glass vases will be found the best in every way. Large-sized specimen glasses are very useful for sprays of Orchids, or any special flowers that it is thought desirable to keep by themselves. Vases of china or other heavy material require greater discrimination in the selection of flowers. Those in which dark shades predominate should be chosen for light-coloured flowers, and vice vcrsd. Take, for instance, one of the gorgeous blossoms of Magnolia grandiflora ; for this a vase either black or of dark colour should be chosen, whilst for the Pseonias with flowers of light shades of pink and rose, we would prefer a dark-blue vase. With a bunch of dark-coloured roses we should seek for a receptacle of pale tint. For the tea-scented roses of light shades a vase of a bronzy or pale-brown colour would give a good contrast. Rustic baskets look ex- ceedingly pretty when not over-crowded, and are suited for roses, primroses, daffodils, and anemones, with other similar flowers. These baskets, too, have a most pleasing effect with a few bulbs placed in them during the spring-time, and some Selaginella to carpet the same, or a small pot of a dwarf-growing fern placed in the centre. A few roots of the primrose, or other spring- flowering plants, could be chosen as a change, with nice fresh moss or shoots of a small-leaved ivy to entwine about the same. Those flowers which are in most cases only to be had with very short stems,, such as the Stephanotis and Gardenias, can be advan- tageously arranged in a flat dish, placing some moss in the latter with the necessary quantity of water. In such dishes a few flowers of the Gardenias, and the tea-scented rose Madame Falcot,'look very well, each with a little of their own foliage. — From CassclVs Popular Gardening for December. Egg-drill and Blow-pipe. — I should be much obliged if any reader would tell me where I can pro- cure an egg-drill and blow-pipe, such as are figured in " Notes on Collecting and Preserving Natural His- tory Objects." Also, is there any great advantage in. covering the hole of a blown egg with paper? — K.D. The Mild Weather. — As evidence of the mild weather which prevailed in November and December last, the following list of twenty-seven wild plants found in full flower on November 25th, within a short walk will show : Ranwicitlus acris, L. (buttercup) ; Ranunculus repens, L. ; Sisymbrium officinale, L. (hedge mustard) ; Sisy/nbrium alliaria, Scop. (Jack by the hedge) ; Brassica campestris, L. ; Capsella Bursa- Pastoris, DC. (shepherd's purse) ; Cerastiiun triviale. Link ; Stellaria media, L. (chickweed) ; Stellaria- holostea, L. (stitchwort) ; Areitaria serpyllifolia, L. ; Geranium dissectuin, L. ; Geranium Robcrtiaiuim, L. (Herb Robert) ; Trifolium procumbens, L. ; Hedera helix, L. (ivy) ; Galium aparine, L. (cleavers) ; Bellis perennis, L. (daisy) ; Matricaria chamomilla, L. (wild chamomile) ; Senecio vulgaris, L. (groundsel) ; Taraxacum offuinalc, Wig. (dandelion) ; Sonchus. oleraceus, L. ; (sow thistle) ; Hieracium murorum, L. ; Hieracium sylvaticum, Sm. ; Veronica agrestis, L. ; Laminum purpureum, L. (red nettle) ; Lamium album, L. (white dead-nettle); Urtica dioica, L. (stinging nettle); Euphorbia pephts, L. (spurge). — R. Scott. Nightjar. — A pair of these birds were observed at Heslington, near York, as late as the third week in November. One of them was picked up in the garden of Heslington Hall, having almost succumbed HARD WICKE ' S S CIENCE - G O SSIF. 23 to the severe weather. It revived on being warmed before the fire ; it was preserved by Mr. Allen, of York, and is now in the possession of Mr. Hornby, of Heslington. — J. A. IVhddon. Sand Pictures. — If J. M. C. will apply to Mr. Cotton, Alum Bay, Isle of Wight, I have no doubt he will be able to obtain the bottles of coloured sand arranged as pictures, at a moderate price. — W. E, IVindus. Strensall Common. — This notable Yorkshire locality has undergone a great change during the last two years, having been transformed into a military camp by the Government. Owing to draining opera- tions the ajjpearance of the surface has become entirely changed. The first bird to take alarm was the black- headed gull, which formerly bred here in immense numbers. All the extensive splashes or patches of marsh are now almost quite dry in summer, and the gulls have migrated to other commons in the district. The teal and wild duck appear to have also left their old summer haunts, though the latter appear regularly in the winter months. The little grebe and snipe are much scarcer, as also the redshank, although a few of the latter still breed on the common. Many of the rarer plants are found in greatly diminished numbers, and the extermination of some of them is probably only a matter of time. I searched in vain this summer for Andromeda polifolia, and we shall probably soon see the last of Drosera ititeriiudia, Hypericum elodes, Mentha pukgiiim, Radiola millegrana, Filularia glohilifera and others. Gcntiana ptictimonanthe appears to hold its ground so far. Some of the freshwater shells are already scarce. The very large examples of Litnnca stag)ialis and Planorbis corneics are not to be found now, but Limnea glabra and iruncahda are still very fine and abundant. I hear also that a portion of Askham Bog is about to be im- proved off the face of the earth ; several pools are to be filled up, and converted into grazing ground. This portion of the bog was a rich conchological resort, producing several rare shells, and I believe also some very good aquatic beetles. Fortunately the improve- ment will not extend as far as the haunts of Carex paradoxa, Myrica gals, Osvuttida regalis, Lastrea ihelyptcris, &c. It would be a severe blow to local naturalists to entirely lose this tract of aboriginal ground, immediately after the destruction of Strensall Common. — y. A. IVheldon. NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS. To Correspondents and Exchangers. — As we now publish Science-Gossip earlier than formerly, we cannot un- <iertake to insert in the following number any communications ■which reach us later than the 8th of the previous month. To Anonymous Querists. — We must adhere to our rule of not noticing queries which do not bear the writers' names. To Dealers and Others. — We are always glad to treat dealers in natural history objects on the same fair and general , ground as amateurs, in so far as the " exchanges " offered are fair exchanges. But it is evident that, when their offers are simply Disguised Advertisements, for the purpose of evading the cost of advertising, an advantage is taken oi omx gratuitous insertion of " exchanges " which cannot be tolerated. Wk request that all exchanges may be signed with name (or ■ initials) and full address at the end. Special Note. — There is a tendency on the part of some exchangers to send more than one per month. We only allow this in the case of writers of papers. E. T. H.— In all probability the pebble containing Rhynco- nella, found at Southbourne, was a bit of rolled greensand from the Isle of Wight. "Alum Bay Sand." — Bottles (bluebell shaped) and paper weights of this variegated sand are sold all over the Isle of Wight. The maker lives at Totland Bay, but a letter addressed to "The Naturalist, The Pottery, &c.. Hut, The Pier, Totland Bay, Isle of Wight," would doubtless find him. He also sells Isle of Wight fossils and pottery. A fair sized bottle of sand may be got f^r is., and the one representing "The Needles" is about the most interesting.— Gciir^f P. Best, Chelsea, IV. W. Hodges.— The coloured illustrations on Graphic Micro- scopy were given up on account of their great expense. Remember that Science-Gossip is published at ^d. E. E. Lowe.— Get Dr. Ahn's " First Course in Spanish," price IS. or is. (ni. J. Worlledge, Woodbridge. — From your .sketches and description, we do not think the creature is a rotifer, but a stalked infusorian, probably a species of Ophridiunu J. S. T. — One of the best places to find carboniferous lime- stone fossils is the neighbourhood of Castleton, Derbyshire. T. Summers. — Get the .shilling edition referred to in our present list of "Books Received," on "Land and Freshwater Shells." R. W. HooLEY.— Huxley and Martin's "Biology" (pub- lished by Macmillan) is the best elementary book. F. L. Tanner. — Get Swift's Second Series. Zeiss's are good, and, perhaps, cheaper. A. Skipton. — See the notice in our Science-Gossip column of Professor Seeley's lectures. We would strongly advise you to join the class. Thereby you would get to know directly all you ask about. R. Cou par. —Address the Hon. Sec. Bradford Naturalists' Society, Bradford, Yorkshire. J. KiRBV. — From the capital sketch of the fish you sent, we have no doubt it is Ostracion cornutns, one of the Berycidae peculiar to tropical seas now. Mrs. B.— Write to Messrs. George Bell and Sons, 4 York Street, Covent Garden, about the " London Catalogue," and to Mr. John Eggleston, Naturalist, Sunderland, about the botanical labels for British plants. A few years ago a book was published of such labels, printed on one side. J. EvRE. — Your article will appear in due course. G. HoGGETT. — Write to Mr. John Browning, 63 Strand, London, about the telescope. "Ben Nevis." — Will some Kentish botanist inform this querist as to the best " Flora of Kent " 1 Miss Hellmaun. — Your note appeared in the December number of Scienck-Gossip. H. D. GowER. — A capital work is now being issued in monthly parts, price ?(/., with coloured plates, by Dr. Carl Russ, entitled "The Speaking Parrots," published by L. Upcott Gill. There is also a cheap work, called " Parrots in Captivity," published, we believe, at the " Bazaar" office. To OUR Friends. — Owing to our having to go to press this month very early on account of the Christmas holidays, many queries and exchanges have to stand over. We have received various complaints from subscribers that Science-Gossip comes out so late. The complaint is a gratifying one to the Editor ; it shows that his subscribers are anxious to get Science. Gossip as soon as possible. The Editor intends that with the new year the magazine will be out nine days earlier than heretofore. No exchanges inserted after the loth of each month. EXCHANGES. Will exchange the following eggs, side-blown, one hole: — Common crossbill, rosy bullfinch, dipper, Squacco heron. Dart- ford warbler, and black -headed gull, for one-hole blown wood- cock, turnstone, bittern, great bustard, and others. Please send lists. Henry Booth, Upcerne Road, Chelsea. Offered.— "Course of Time" (Pollock), "Life of Kitto" (Eadie), "Elements of Zoology" (Rhind), "Young Fur Traders," "Tours to the British Mountains, 1824" (Wilkin- son), " Iron and Heat " (Armour), " Life and Travels of Hum- boldt," "French Grammar" (Wolskie), "Leisure Time Studies," chiefly biological (Wilson), " Life of a Scotch Natu- ralist"— Edward (Smiles), " Die Waldenser im Mittelalter (in German). Wanted.— " Conchology" (Woodward), "Manual of Mollusca," "Siluria" (Murchison), "Western Islands" (McCulloch), "Principles of Geology" (Lyell), "Antiquity of Man"(Lyell), "Monograph of Fossils" (King), "Geology of Arran" (Bryce), " Prehistoric Times " (Lubbock), "History of Rutherglen and East Kilbride" (Ure), "Volcanic Islands" (Darwin), and "Catalogue of British Fossils" (Morris).— J. Smith, Monkredding, Kilwinning. Cast of a hammer-headed shark {Zygoma inalleus) of the Mediterranean. Desiderata, curios, other eggs than birds*, foreign shells, especially snail's. Curios to exchange ; descrip- tion will be sent with head, which is very rare.— Archibald Hy. McBean, S. Denys, Southampton. Fossils from Barton and Hordle to exchange for others from various formations. Send lists to— Miss Hinuber, Bel- more, Lymington, Hants. . Wanted, books on Microscope, recent editions; wiU give others in exchange.— W. T. Porter, 19 Otley Road, Heading- ley, Leeds. 24 HARDWICKKS SCIENCE-GOSSIP. For exchange, thirty-two last parts "Journal of Geological Society," and other scientific works. Wanted, "Journal of Chemical Society," and other standard scientific works. — G. Freeman, 51 Danby Street, Denmark Park, London, S.E. Sph. ovale and PL dilatatus from an entirely new Lancashire locality, H. pomatia, L. pcregra, var. solemia and Boisii, and others. Desiderata, British and foreign land and freshwater shells.— W. Hy. Heathcote, INLC.S., East View, Preston. I SHOULD be very glad to receive heads of any animals or birds, recently dead, for dissection. — A. W. Harrison, Assist. Demonstrator of Anatomy, Westminster Hospital Medical School, Caxton Street, London, S.W. Forty varieties of animal hairs, mostly foreign, in exchange for six good slides. — .'\rthur H. Williams, Hythe. Offered, Helix Caniiana, virgata, rotuttdaia, hortensis, Zonites cellarhis, Physa. hypnorum, Anodonta anatina, Plan- orbis contorta, corneits, Bythinia Leachii, tentaculata. Pupa uinbilicata, Paludina vivipara, Le»tncsa glabra, in exchange for other shells. — J. A. Wheldon, York. Offered, Bartramia pomiformis, var. crispa, arciiaia, fontana, CEdeH, Sphagmun rigidion, compactum, rubellur>i, tenelhiin, Pottea iriincata, Keckera crispa, Tctraplodon 7iiucoides, Hedwigia ciliata, Schistostega osmundacea, Grini- tnia apocarpa, var. rivulare, Racomitriuin laniiginosiim, Climaciiiin dendroides. Hyp. cordifoliuin, iincittatum, adiin- cum, comiimtatum, tnolhiscuiii. Wanted, many common mosses and lichens. — J. A. Wheldon, York. Wanted, British or foreign insects in spirit (correctly named), recent specimens. State wants ; good exchange in various un- mounted micro material ; many good things offered for suitable specimens. Address with list and sample — R. M., 24 Park Road, Clapham, London, S.W. "Nature," Vols. 23 and 24, bound, in splendid condition; what offers? Will take botanical micro slides, various, &c. — J. Hunter, Sea View, Buncrana, near Londonderry. L. stagnalis, very large, Buliinus acutjis, var. bczona of Bulimits aciiiiis, also H. virgata, and var. submaritima of H. virgata and L. glabra, also eggs of thrush, blackbird, starling, water-hen, partridge, missel thrush, &c. &c. De- siderata very numerous. — W. Hewett, 3 Wilton Terrace, Ful- ford Road, York. Wanted, Teall's "British Petrography," Phillips's "Ore Deposits," Daubree's " Geologic Experimentale," and the " Quarterly Journ. Geolog., Society " for Nov. 1883, and other numbers. — X. Y. Z., 103 Hill's Road, Cambridge. Offered, a well-preserved specimen of a scorpion, quite perfect and recent. Wanted, micro material, marine objects preferred, sponge spicules, or material of a similar character, alga or good zoophytes, British or foreign ; all must be correctly named, unmounted. — R. M., 24 Park Road, Clapham, London, S.W. Wanted, physiological and scientific micro slides in ex- change for polarising, opaque, and other popular objects. — Henry Ebbage, 344 Caledonian Road, London. Wanted, entomological material in quantity, suitable for microscopical mounting ; good micro slides or otherwise given in lieu. Communicate before sending. — H. Francis, 14 York Place, Clifton, Bristol. Wanted, fossils from crag, Woolwich beds, London clay, Thanet sands and Bracklesham beds, in exchange for those from the chalk, greensand, coal measures, and a few American eocene fossils ; also about sixty coloured plates of fossil shells. Send lists. — Geo. E. East, jun., 10 Basinghall Street, London, E.C. Offered, Vols, i., ii. and iii. of Cassell's "Technical Educator," bound edition. Wanted, natural history books, specimens (not entomological) or micro accessories. — G. P. Best, 33 First Avenue, Harrow Road, London, W. " Familiar Birds' Eggs and Nest<,' by H. G. Adams, with sixteen coloured plates, beautifully bound as new ; will ex- change for side-blown birds' eggs. Please send list of eggs in exchange to — Henry T. Booth, Upcerne Road, Chelsea. A FEW specimens of Euplcctella aspcrgilluin in exchange for scientific books, " Quekett Microscopical Journal," Vols. i. and ii., 2nd series, wanted particularly, or offers. — W. H. Harris, 44 Partridge Road, Cardiff. Offered. — L. C., 8th ed. : 229, 351, 552, 538, 662, 919, 931, 970, 986, 1046, 1162, 1269, 1330, 1335, and 1558, in exchange for others. — A. Sangster, Ivy Cottage, Cattie, Old Meldrum, N.B. Will exchange a small collection of about a hundred dif- ferent species of mosses and lichens, from Bt:lgium and Luxem- burg, for natural history specimens, siarfish or echinoderms preferred, not necessarily British. — Hugh B. Preston, 54 Lex- ham Gardens, Kensington, W. Will exchange unset British butterflies, also set specimens of the Apollo butterfly [Parnassias Apollo), for natural history specimens, starfish or echini preferred, not necessarily British. Hugh B. Preston, 54 Lcxham Gardens, Kensington, W. Hooker's "Student's British Flora," 2nd edit., VVatter's "Birds of Ireland," "Wild Life in a Southern County," &c., in exchange for other books, or offers. — Rev. W. W. Flemyng, Clonegam Rectory, Portlaw, co. Waterford. Any of the following eggs for clutches of many other species: clutches of sparrow hawk, kestrel, common buzzard, American robin, sedge warbler, gold crest, great tit, jackdaw, magpie, red-backed shrike, reed bunting, tree and meadow pipit, sky- lark, nightjar, golden-winged woodpecker, moor hen, coote, ringed plover, lapwing, curlew, sandpiper, common snipe, common, Arctic, sooty and Riippell's terns, kittiwake, common L. B. B. and G. B. B. gulls, great skua, little grebe, mute swans; and eggs of sheldrake, pheasant, partridge, hen harrier, honey buzzard, dipper, grasshopper and Dartford warblers, corn crake, water rail, oyster catcher, whimbrel, dunlin, puffin, razor bill, guillemot, stormy petrel. — J. B. Young, 2 Elgin Villas, Rodwell, Weymouth. Wanted, all or any of the following shells: Pholadidea papyracea, Pholas crispata, Scalaria Turtonce, lanthina cxigua, I. rotnndata, BucciniDit H ittnplireysiatium. Pinna pectinaia, P. rudis, Isocardia cor, five kinds q{ Fusiises,Pcctt'ii. glaber [iigrittus], Veneriipis iris, Gastrochcena ntodiolina, Anomia striata, A. patelliformis, Avicitla tarentina, Einar- gimila crassa, axxd. Xylop/iaga dorsalis. Good exchange given in other British shells, minerals, fossils, polished Devonian cora'.s and sponges, thin sections for micro purposes, &c. — A. J. R. Sclater, M.C.S., 23 Bank Street, Teignmouth. Offered, upwards of seventy numbers of " Band of Hope Review," dating from 1881 to 1888 ; would make a good volume of interesting reading if bound together, or otherwise, in exchange for rare foreign stamps. — A. J. R. Sclater, M.C.S., 23 Bank Street, Teignmouth. A duplicate collection of British mosses, over 300 species, correctly named and mounted, in exchange for foreign mosses, hepaticae or algae (algae especially wanted), or exchanges in these plants solicited. — J. Miles, 25 Sudeley Place, Kemp Town, Brighton. What offers for "Biological Atlas," "A Guide to the Prac- tical Study of Plants and Animals," 423 coloured figures and diagrams, by D. M'AIphine, quite new. — Walter HoUebon, Newark House, Langney Road, Eastbourne. Wanted, varieties of H. nemoralis and hortensis, and living slugs, in exchange for other land and freshwater shells. — F. G. Fenn, Isleworth, Middlesex. Vols. I.-IV. of Science-Gossip, bound, and choice micro- slides of parasites, diatoms, botanical, double-stained, &c., in exchange for other choice slides. — R. Suter, 5 Highweek Road, Tottenham. Twenty-four good microscopic slides in cloth-covered rack box ; will exchange for three fir.st issue Jubilee sixpences. — W. Mathie, 127 Buchanan Street, Glasgow. Wanted, to exchanae N. American or European plants, for Australian, Indian, African, or S. American ; also British and Continental plants for N. American. — A. E. Lomax, 56 Vaux- hall Koad, Liverpool. The "MvRiAroDA." — The undersigned is very desirous of communicating with some one who has made a study of this group, for the identification of an apparently undescribed form, which is marine (three to four fathoms). — ^J. Sinel, Cleveland Road, Jersey. Clean, washed, and picked foraminifera, from Atlantic mud, with locality and depth, in exchange for good objective. — A. H. Delap, Clonmel. BOOKS, ETC., RECEIVED. "The Eulogy of Richard Jeffries," by Walter Besant (London : Chatto & Windus). — "Truth for its own Sake — The Story of Charles Darwin," by W. Mawer (London: Swan Sonnenschein).— "Land and Freshwater Shells," by J. W. Williams, J. W. Taylor, and W. Decissar Roebuck (London : Swan Sonnenschein). — "Catalogue of the Collection of New Zealand Birds, Manor House, Letcomb Regis, Wantage," bv Sir W. L. Buller (London: E. A. Petherick).—" Electric Bells and all about them," by S. R. Bottone (London : Whittaker & Co.).— " Book Chat."— "The Amateur Photo- grapher."—" The Garner." — "The Naturalist." — " The Botanical Gazette." — "Journal of the New York Microscopical Society." — "Belgravia." — "The Gentleman's Magazine." — "American Monthly Microscopical Journal." — "The Essex Naturalist." — "The Midland Naturalist." — "Feuilles des Jeunes Naturalistes." — " The American Naturalist." — " Journal of Microscopy and Nat. Science." — " Ottawa Naturalist." — " Scientific News."—" Wesley Naturalist," &c. &c. Communications received up to the ioth ult. from : A. U K. A. D.— C. P.— M. E. A.— A. H. L. S.— E. H. R.— R. N.— O.— M.— F. T. S— F. R. R.-A. W. H.-R. C— J. H.— R. P.— W. H. H.— M. B.— B.— A. H. W.— K. E. S.— G. W. B.— C H.— K. A. D.— W. B.— D. H. S.— J. A. W.— J. W. W.— A. H. S.— M. H. B.— G. E. E.— J. B. Y.— H. L. B.— W. W. F.— S. Mc. I.— G. F. G.— G. P. B.— W. E. W. (?).— R. M.— W. H. H.— G. F.— H. T. B.— E. T. H. -C. P.— H. W.— E. H. R.— J. E.— G. H.-H. A..F.— E. W. W. G. W. N.— E. B.— J. H. R.— J. C. E.— J. S.— M. W. J.— W. M. W.— S. D.— G. W.— J. T.— A. S.— T. J. P.— W. J. P. A. J. R. S.— A. G. T.-B. I. F.— A. V.-W. E. S.— W. H.— A. E. L.— G. W. K.— W. H.— R. S.— F. G. F.— J. H.— J. S.— W. M.— E. E. L.— J. G.— A. H. D.— J. H. C R.— E. H., &c. &c. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 25 COLOUR DEVELOPMENT IN LEAVES AND FLOWERS. By a. G. TANSLEY. AM very glad to see (Science- Gossip, October and November) that Mr. Bulman has argued in some detail in sup- port of his rather sweeping charges against the theory of colour develop- ment in flowers by means of insect selection. In my former paper (Science-Gossip, June, 1888), I briefly pointed out a line of defence of the points at- tacked by Mr. Bul- man ; I will now proceed to consider his " Reply." In comparing the colours of leaves and flowers, with a view to finding out the causes of their exist- ence, we are, I think,; at once struck by the fact that the bright colours of leaves, which appear in the autumn, are the attributes of a period of decay, depend in point of time on that period, and are therefore presumably most intimately connected with it in causation : this we know on good authority to be the case. When, on the other hand, we turn to the colours of entomophilous perianths, we see that they last during the period from expansion to fertilisa- tion ; that is to say, the period when the organs of the flower are preparing for the exercise of their function. The inference here also is clear ; either the colours are connected in causation with this functional activity, or, whatever the cause of their original appearance, they at present exist in virtue of the exercise of some function of their own. Now it is not h priori likely, from the great variety and complex distribution of these colours, that they can be accounted for as the mere result of the chemical processes connected with No. 290. — February 1889. pollen and ovule development ; but, however this may be, it has not, so far as I know, been done or attempted ; we are, therefore, driven to the other alternative, that they have a function of their own. The question now becomes, what is their function ? From observation of the habits of insects in visiting flowers, and from the knowledge of the benefits con- ferred by cross-fertilisation, which we further know these insects are constantly effecting, we are led to believe that the function of the colours of flowers is to attract insects. This leads at once, by the help of the theory of natural selection, to what we may call the general theory of colour development through insect selection. It is thus plain that the difference between the colouring pigments of leaves and flowers, which, Dr. Sorby tells us, are often chemically identical, is a difference in functional significance. Mr. Bulman is quite right in saying that "the fact, that the colour is in both cases due to the same chemical changes, does not make the suggestion (that colour in flowers is not developed by insect selection) less probable." I ought not to have said that Dr. Sorby's statement "fully meets" Mr. Bulman's objection, but rather that it is answered by this fact of the difference o functional significance, which was of course the as- sumption upon which my argument was based. Dr. Sorby's statement, however, in one sense, does meet Mr. Bulman's objection: — "We are just as much bound to account for the colours of these (leaves) as of the varied hues of the blossoms," Mr. Bulman says; and Dr. Sorby's statement does account for them — chemically — in the same way as for those of the flowers, but it is no part of his province to point out, what seems fairly obvious, the great difference between them in respect of functional significance. Here, in fact, hes the fallacy of Mr. Bulman's original argument, the assumption that, because the colours of leaver have not been developed by means of insect selection, therefore there is no need to sup- pose that those of flowers, which appear, as I have shown, under totally different conditions, and there- fore require, from a physiological point of view, a c 26 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. wholly different explanation, were originated by this means. Here I may conveniently deal with some remarks of Mr. Bulman's in his recent papers, bearing on this point. He says, for instance, that his conclusion that a brilliant red may be developed in a plant without the selective action of insects, "does not prove the selection theory impossible, but it does show that it is not necessary." Again, in referring to the cases of the appearance of red in the stigmas of Poterium and Corylus, he remarks that if these cases can be effected without insect agency, " it is simple dogmatism to say that petals might not be so also." Lastly, " It is doubt- less unwise to argue from the existence in flowers of certain colours which cannot have been influenced in their development by insect selection, that the colours of flowers in general cannot have been so developed ; it is, however, a legitimate and necessary conclusion, that they may have been developed without the selective action." Are not all these remarks per- meated by the same fallacy ? Of course the colours of petals may have been developed without insect selection ; the question is, is it likely, considering the circumstances under which they appear, and the varied nature of the colours themselves ? And does the fact of the appearance, a brilliant red in leaves, render the selection theory unnecessary ? Surely not, unless there is a reasonable theory to explain the de- velopment of the colours of flowers through chemical causes connected with some process going on in the plant, such as we have in the leaf, and adequate in each case to produce the particular distribution of colour in each species. Has this been done, or is it likely to be done ? The case of the stigmas of Corylus, quoted from Hermann Miiller, simply enforce this view. Miiller considers " that the red colour of the stigmas is solely an effect of chemical processes connected with the development of the female flowers to maturity." Has such an explanation been attempted of the colours of cntomophilous perianths ? To put tlie case in other words, in each female hazel plant the red colour in the stigmas is brought about by something which must happen in the economy of the plant, whereas in cntomophilous corollas we suppose the colour to have been brought about by the laws of heredity, themselves brought into play by the selective action of insects. It is therefore apparent that my objection that the red of the leaf is not fixed, — in the sense of hereditary in the species — can be urged [against this example, and that the red colour in the stigmas of Corylus and Poterium is brought about every year by chemical causes connected with vital processes, and is not "stereotyped and perpetuated," i.e. made permanent in the species from a functional reason. Mr. Bulman says that the connection in which I use the word "development" " seems to imply that the colouration of the flower was as completely effected as that of the leaf before insect selection came into play to stereotype and peq^etuate it." Now I did not mean to imply anything of the kind ; I used the word " development " here to mean simply the appearance of the colouring pigment, that is to say, chemical development. I am sorry that Mr. Bulman has misunderstood me, but I cannot say that I think the passage is ambiguous. " The development of the coloured pigments in both leaves and flowers is due to the same primary chemical set of causes." Is there anything in this sentence which "seems to imply that the colouration of the flower was as com- pletely effected as that of the leaf before insect selec- tion came into play to stereotype and perpetuate it ? " Surely it is clear that my statement has nothing whatever to do with intensity of colouration. Again, Mr. Bulman frequently alludes to a sup- posed "stereotyping" theory of mine; in one place, indeed, after instancing the development of colour in the monkshood, quoted from Mr. Grant Allen, as a case of the sort of process he (Mr. Bulman) under- stands when he speaks of the colour development through insect selection, he expresses the opinion, that this is "more in accordance with Darwinism " than my " theory." Now, in the first place, I have no independent theory to account for the colours of flowers ; and, secondly, the word " stereotype " is a word which I find I have unconsciously borrowed from Mr. Graiat Allen, and which I used in the same sense that he does, simply to mean the making permanent in a species a useful variation, by means of natural selection. In this case the process would doubtless result in intensification of the colour, but the point which the word in question is intended to emphasise, is its be- coming hereditary. My " stereotyping theory " then, at least as far as the " stereotyping " goes, is identical in all respects with M r. Grant Allen's, and therefore can hardly be less in accordance with "Darwinism ! " How Mr. Bulman, from my sentence quoted above, and aTiother remark that the colours of flowers were stereotyped and perpetuated in the species by insect selection, while those of leaves were not, came to the conclusion, that I considered that the colours were '■^ only stereotyped and perpetuated" by the insect selection, I cannot understand. Mr. Bulman next informs us that my statement, that ' * the contention of the upholders of the theory is that they (bees) have learned to consider blue or red as an index of high specialisation," and that this is the reason of their preferring these colours, deals a death-blow to the theory I am defending. He goes on to enforce this idea, by considering the time when flowers according to the theory had not become blue. " The bees' taste for blue being simply the result of experience, does not exist. So the few flowers with a chance shade of blue ... are not specially selected by the bees visiting the blooms for honey, and do not obtain any advantage : the chance variations towards blueness, not conferring any benefit, are not seized HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 27 upon by selection — they disappear." With regard to this statement, we should remember one or two things ; in the first place, the " bees " were not bees at all, the co-adaptations which now exist between them and the flowers they visit,and without which the colour in itself would be meaningless, were for the most part not yet evolved. It should be remembered that while these variations of colour were first appearing, the co- adaptations which we see in such beautiful perfection at the present day, were appearing as variations. In Hermann Miiller's words: "The first traces of adaptation to insects, could only be due to the influence of quite short-lipped insects with feebly developed colour-sense. The most primitive flowers are therefore for the most part (except, for instance, Salix) simple, widely open, regular, devoid of honey or with their honey unconcealed and easily accessible, and white or yellow in colour {e.g. most UmbellifercB and AhinecE, many Rammailacei2 and Rosacea). . . . Gradually from the miscellaneous lot of flower-visiting insects, all much alike in their tastes, there arose others more skilful and intelligent, with longer tongues and acuter colour-sense ; and they gradually caused the production of flowers with more varied colours, honey invisible to or beyond the reach of the less intelligent short-tongued guests, and various con- trivances for lodging, protecting, and pointing out the honey." We can thus see how the new colours would become correlated with increasing complexity of structure, and would at last come to be recognised by the developing bee as the outward marks of flowers suited to it in structure ; the eventual taste for blue arising from the selection of the varieties visited be- cause of their gradually increasing'specialisation, and the neglect of the more primitive yellow or wliite forms. Mr. Grant Allen goes so far as to say, that the appearance of the colours followed a regular law of progressive colouration — yellow, white, red, blue. — which would thus be correlated with increasing com- plexity ; in his own words : " Bees and butterflies are the most highly-adapted of all insects to honey- seeking and flower-feeding. They have themselves on their side undergone the largest amount of specialisa- tion for that particular function. And if the more specialised and modified flowers, which gradually fitted their forms and the position of their honey- glands to the forms of the bees or butterflies, showed a natural tendency to pass from yellow through pink and red to purple and blue, it would follow that the insects which were being evolved side by side with them, and which were aiding at the same time in their evolution, would grow to recognise these developed colours as the visible symbols of those flowers from which they could obtain the largest amount of honey with the least possible trouble. Thus it would finally result that the ordinary unspecialised flowers, which depended upon small insect riff-raff, would be mostly left yellow or white ; those which appealed to rather higher insects would become pink or red ; and those which laid themselves out for bees and butterflies, the aristocrats of the arthropodous world, would grow for the most part to be purple or blue" ("Colours of Flowers," pp. 23, 24). If then the theory is to stand at all, it must rest upon the supposition that bees grew to recognise " blue or red as an index of high specialisation," for we cannot assume the then not fully-evolved bee to have acquired his taste for blue (this of course^ must be distinguished from the power of discriminating the colour blue from other colours) from any other source. And even if we do not abso- lutely accept Mr. Grant Allen's ' ' Law of Progressive Colouration," there is good reason for believing with Hermann Miiller that red and blue appeared later than white and yellow, and would therefore be corre- lated with the more complex structures. Thus the statement under which, according to Mr. Bulman, " the whole theory collapses " is abso- lutely necessary for its support. I think, from what I have said above, it will hardly be necessary now to refute Mr. Bulman'sidea, that Mr. Grant Allen believes bees to be attracted by blue "simply as a colour"; his quotations merely amount to the statement, that every time Mr. Grant Allen speaks of the " azure-loving bee," he does not explain the origin of its love for azure, which could hardly be expected of him. The following passages from the " Colours of Flowers " are, however, ex- plicit enough: "The fact is, blue flowers are, as a rule, specialised for fertilisation by bees, a/id dees therefore prefer this colour'''' (p. 19). "Bees show a marked taste for blue, because blue is the colour of the juost advanced fl.oivers'" (p. 119). {To be contimied.) OUR SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. "\ T TANT of space prevents us from giving more V V than a general list of the chief articles in the "Transactions," &c., of the following societies. County of Middlesex Natural History and Science Society: "The Chemistry of London Clay," by W. Mattieu Williams; "Appearance in London oi Ephestia Kiihniella, and the Remedy provided by Nature," by Sidney J. Klein ; " Horns and Antlers," by Professor Flower; "Fossils of the Flint, or the Wonders Lying at Our Own Doors," by George Barraclough ; " On Some Methods of Collecting and Keeping Pond-life for the Microscope," by C. Rousselet. The City of London College Society: "The Use of Experiment in Biology," by Professor G. S. Boulger ; " The New Darwinism, or the Segregation of the Fit," by J. W. Gregory. Hackney Microscopical and Natural History Socuty: " The Migration of Internal Parasites," by W. Smart. Bristol Naturalists' Society: " Dolomitic C 2 28 HARD WICKK S SCIENCE- G OSS I P. Conglomerate of Bristol," by Joel Lean; "The Mendips, A Geological Reverie"; "The Stones of Stanton Drew, Their Source and Origin," and " Elimination and Selection," by Professor C. Lloyd Morgan ; " Remarks About Seals, and their So-called ' Ballast- bag,' " by A.J. Harrison; "Researches on Evaporation and Dissociation," by Professor William Ramsay, and Professor Sydney Young ; " The Crossmg of Ferns," by Colonel Arthur M. Jones ; "The Illumination of the Eclipsed Moon," by G. F, Burder. Chichester and West Sussex Natural His- tory and Microscopical Society : ' ' Notes from a Berar Camp," by Rev. C. D. Ash; " The Use of Natural History Collections," by A. Lloyd ; "Nummulites," by Dr. Panton ; "The Antennae of Lepidoptera," by J. Anderson, jun. ; " Phyto-Geography of the South Coast," by Rev. F, H. Arnold; " A Chapter from the History of Oils," by Rev. J. Eraser. Dum- friesshire and Galloway Natural History and Anti- (jtiarian Society : "Atmospheric and other Influences on the Migration of Fishes," by J. J. Armistead ; " The Graptolites of the Moffat District," by James Dairon. Hertfordshire Nattiral History Society and Field Club : " The means of Protection possessed by Plants," by F. Maule Campbell ; " On Walckenaera interjecta, a New Spider from Hoddesdon," by Rev. C. P. Cambridge ; " A Record of Water-level in a Deep Chalk Well at Barley, Herts," by H. George Fordham : " Some Methods of Moth-collecting," by R. M. Bowyer.- Leeds Geological Association : "Oceanic Deposits," by Thomas Tate; "The Occurrence of Quartzite and other Boulders in the Lower Coal Measures at Wortley, near Leeds," by C. Brownridge. Liverpool Geological Society : ' ' Local Historical, Post-glacial and Pre-glacial Geology," by G. H. Morton ; " A Theory to Account for the Airless and Waterless Condition of the Moon," by Rev. F. F. Grensted ; "Geological and Physical Notes on the above," by T. Mellard Reade ; " Stan- low, Nice, and Frodesham Marshes," by G. H. Morton : " Notes on Glacial Deposits and Markings in the South of the Isle of Man," by W. Hewitt ; "Notes on the Geology of St. David's, Pembroke- shire," and " Notes on a Large Boulder found in Driving a Sewer Heading in Oxford Road, Man- chester," by T. Mellard Reade ; " Geological Notes on the Preston Dock Works and Nibble Develop- ment Scheme," with illustration and plan, by E. Dickson ; " Examination of Quartzite from Mills Hill, Pontesbury," by P. Holland and E. Dickson ; " On the Colouring Matter of the Mineral 'Blue John,'" by A. Norman Tate; "Some Irregularly Striated Joints in the Keuper Sandstone of Lingdal (Quarry," with plans, by H. C. Beasley. Penzance Natural LListory and Antiquarian Society: "The Mosses of East Cornwall," by R. V. Tellam ; " Notes on the Echinodermata of Mounts Bay," by G. F. Tregelles ; "Additions to the recorded Fauna and Flora of West Cornwall." HORNS AND ANTLERS. \ LECTURE recently delivered by Professor Flower, Director of the British Museum, to the County of Middlesex Natural History and Science Society, on the above deeply interesting subject, is given in full in the last issue of the "Transactions." We extract the following paragraphs (illustrated by the original block used in Professor Flower's lecture), and for the loan of which we are indebted to the Hon. Sees. : — It is among the ruminating section of the even-toed or Artiodactyle ungulates that frontal appendages are most universally developed. In some of these, how- ever, as thejTragulida?, or Chevrotains, and Camelida?, camels and llamas, they are absent. In the great group of Bovidse, consisting of oxen, sheep, goats, and antelopes, they are present in the form of true horns. These are permanent, conical, usually curved, bony processes from the frontal bone, into which air- cells from the frontal sinuses commonly extend, called the "horn-cores," ensheathed in a case of true horn, an epidermic development of fibrous structure, which grows continuously, but slowly, from the base, and wears away at the apex ; but is not shed entire. Its structure is very much the same as that of a nail, hoof, or claw. When the horn is removed from the core, the basal part is seen to be hollow, the terminal portion beyond the core alone being solid. This part may be cut without giving rise to more sensation than cutting nails or hair. The surface of the core itself is soft, vascular, and sensitive. As with most similar appendages, horns are not present at birth, but begin to grow soon after. The males of all existing Bovidae possess them, and they are also present, though usually not so fully developed, in the females of all except certain genera of antelopes. In one species, the Indian four-horned antelope {Tetra- ceros quadricornis), there are two pairs ; in all others only one pair. They vary immensely in size, form, and curvature, sometimes being perfectly straight, sometimes spirally twisted, sometimes coiled almost in one plane, as in the familiar ram's horn {Cornu ammonis). Sometimes the surface is smooth, and sometimes covered with annular ridges, or a series or projections or knobs on one side only, but they are never branched. A single species, the North American prong-buck (Antilocapra Americana), differs from all the true Bovidae, in possessing horns composed of fibrous epidermic material ensheathing a permanent bony core, but which is bifurcated at the end, and is regularly and periodically cast off and replaced by a new horn growing from the surface of the core beneath the old one. In the family 1 Cervidce, or deer, the frontal appendages take the form of "antlers," which must be carefully distinguished from the horns of the bovine ruminants. These are the outgrowths of true HA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OS SIP. 29 bone, covered during their growth with vascular, I insensible, in which state it is well adapted for a sensitive integument coated with short hair, techni- I fighting weapon. After a time, by a process of K^l Fig. 18. — Figures illustrating the growth of Antlers. cally called " the velvet." When the growth of the antler is complete, the supply of blood to it ceases, the skin dies and peels off, leaving the bone bare and absorption near the base, it becomes loosened from the skull and is shed. A more or less elongated portion, called the " pedicle," always remains on the 30 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. skull, from the summit of which a new antler is developed. In most existing deer this process is repeated with great regularity at the same period of the year. Even the great horns of the wapiti, and, judging by all analogy, those of the Irish elk (Mega- ceros), the pair of which weigh seventy pounds, more than all the bones of the skeleton put together, are produced in the course of three or four months. The antler may be small, simple, straight, sub- cylindrical, tapering, and pointed, as in certain South American deer (pudu and brocket) ; but more often it sends off one or more branches, called " tynes " or ' ' snags. " In this case, the main stem is termed the "beam." Commonly, all the branches of the antler are cylindrical, and gradually tapering. Sometimes, as in the fallow deer and the_extinct megaceros, they are more or less expanded or flattened, the antler being then said to be "palmated." In young animals the antlers are always small and simple, and in those species in which they are branched or pal- mated, their complete development is only gradually acquired in several successive annual growths. This process is exceedingly well illustrated by a series of specimens exhibited in the Natural History Museum (to which they were presented by W. H, St. Quintin, Esq.) of the antlers of the same stag {Cervus elaphus) grown and shed in six successive years (see Fig. i8). The animal was born in June, 1880, and was kept under careful observation in a park in Yorkshire. In the year of its birth it had no antlers, but in the summer of 1881 those represented in No. I were grown, and shed in the following spring, 1S82, when the animal was nearly two years old; No. 2 were grown in 1882, and shed in April, 1883, and so on with the others, until in August, 1886, the animal was killed with its newly-grown sixth pair of antlers. This series shows not only that the antlers on the two sides are not always symmetrical, but also that the tynes on the same side do not necessarily resemble those of the preceding or succeeding years. No. 3 of the right side, for example, want the second or bez-tyne, and the same tyne is only indicated by a slight projection in No. 2 on the left side. No. 5 has three tynes on the crown or top of the beam on the right side, and but two on the left ; in No. 6 these numbers are reversed. An interesting parallel has been shown here, as in so many other cases, between the development of the race and that of the individual. The earliest known forms of deer, those of the Lower Miocene, had no antlers, as in the young of existing species. The deer of the Middle Miocene had simple antlers, with not more than two branches, as in many existing deer of the second year. Species occur in the Upper Miocene with three branches to the antlers ; but it was not till the Upper Pliocene and Pleistocene times that deer were met with having antlers developed with that luxuriance of growth and beauty of form characteristic of some of the existing species in a perfectly adult state. Among recent Cervidse antlers are wanting in the musk-deer [Moschus moschiferus) and the Chinese water-deer {Hydropotes iuennis), but their absence in both these forms is compensated by large canine tusks in the male animal. In the reindeer (Ta7-attdus rangifer) alone the female carries antlers as well as the male ; in all other deer they are present in the male only. A CHAPTER ON PHOTO-MICROGRAPHY. THE art of taking pictures of objects under the microscope by means of photography has been generally regarded as beyond the scope of the ordinary microscopist. In the first place the cost of the apparatus is considerable; the ordinary "photo- micrographic camera," being set down in the opti- cian's list at prices varying from £"] to ^10, and this is exclusive of plates, chemicals, and all those other articles which form the equipment of an ordinary photographer. In the second place, comparatively few men have that competent knowledge of both photography and microscopy which the union of the two sciences demands. But while few have this two-fold knowledge them- selves, there cannot be many microscopists who have not a friend who photographs, and these two may co-operate, and without purchasing any special apparatus obtain very fair results. The writer of this paper is a microscopist of some experience, but has little knowledge of photography ; but working with two photographers who are quite unskilled in microscopy, the joint union has produced some very respectable photo-micrographs. We propose then to naiTate the process by which the writer, together with two photographic friends — Mr. P. L. Foster, and] Mr. R. H. Tahourdin— obtained the photographs enclosed. Our apparatus was of the simplest — A "Star" microscope by Messrs. Beck (with rack and pinion coarse adjustment), and an ordinary camera by the Stereoscopic Company. (We may here remark, that the cheapest form of camera would do equally well, as no use is made of the lens.) The light used was that of a small paraffin microscope lamp, 'attached, as usual, to a rod on which it could slide up and down. The actual process is as follows : — Remove the lens from the camera, place the microscope in a horizontal position, and place the eye-piece end of the microscope about half an inch inside the hole of the camera. (In some books it is recommended to remove the eye-piece, but we found that we got a better image when it was left in.) Cut out a circle in a sheet of black cardboard so that the tube of the microscope fits tightly into it, and let HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 3t the sheet be of such a size as to more than cover the lens-hole of the camera. Now slide this along the tube until it reaches the eye-piece ; it will then make the camera perfectly light-tight. As an extra pre- caution, wrap a space focussing cloth round the whole. Remove the ground glass of the camera and make sure (i) That no light enters the camera except through the eye-hole ; (2) That the eye-hole is exactly in the centre of the lens aperture ; then replace the ground glass screen. Screw the substage condenser into the fitting of the microscope, and place lamp behind it, inter- posing a bull's-eye condenser between the lamp-flame and the substage condenser. Focus these condensers and move the lamp, until the object to be photo- graphed is as brilliantly illuminated as possible. An inch objective is perhaps the best for general use. Focus the object very carefully on the ground glass screen, altering the focus by means of the microscope coarse and fine adjustments, and not by moving the camera. Examine the image formed under a magnifying lens, and make sure it is as perfect as possible. Then put in the dark slide. With the inch power the exposure is best made by capping the object glass in the same way as is done with the ordinary lens ; in the employment of higher powers exposure must be made by means of the shutter. For the duration of the exposure no cer- tain rule can be given ; much depends on the luminosity of the flame, on the thickness and colour of the object ; but under the inch power one to two minutes is about right. A photometer will be of great service to determine the exact exposure. The negative is then developed and the print obtained in the ordinary way ; the pyrogallic acid developer is perhaps preferable for this work to the ferrous oxalate, since it permits greater laxity in the matter of over or under exposure. Enclosed I send two half-plate photographs taken in the manner described above ; the one of the head of a female gnat, and the second of a double stained- section of the plane wood ; both of my own mounting. I shall be most happy to give any further infor- mation on the subject to any who care to pursue this fascinating union of the camera and microscope. A. C. Deane. Wellitigton College, Wokingham. A ASTRONOMY. By John Browning, F.R.A.S. T the last meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society, it was stated that the director of the Lick Observatory had presented to the Society a photograph of the moon more than two feet in diameter, in which the lunar details are very sharply defined. The image of the moon, of which this photograph is an enlargement, was taken with the great Lick telescope. A paper by Mr. J. Roberts was read on photo- graphs he has taken of the great nebulre in Andro- meda, which he considers afford striking evidence of the truth of Laplace's nebulae hypothesis. Mr. Roberts considers that the small nebulae H 44 and H 55 have both been thrown off by the great nebulae, and may be looked on as planetary nebulae in course of condensation. Mr. Frank McLean read a paper on some photographs of the red end of the solar spectrum from the D to the A line, about one half of the visible spectrum. The photograph is in seven sections, each about fifteen inches long. They were taken with a refractionfgrating having 17,300 lines in the inch, and are the second order of the spectra. Messrs. Alvan Clark have undertaken to construct a telescope for the United States Government with an object-glass forty-two inches in diameter. This telescope is to be erected in Southern California, and is expected to be completed in about five years. Accounts from San Francisco of the total solar eclipse of January ist, state that it was successfully observed at Brass Valley and many other stations. It would require far more space than is at my disposal to give a brief account of the various observations,, but I may say that Professor Toll took a number of fine photographs of the eclipsed sun, showing the corona extending from ten to twelve degrees. Twenty-five negatives were taken at Winnipeg to • measure the brightness of the corona and its sur- roundings. At the Lick Observatory successful observations were made, and several photographs were taken. The thermometer fell at different places from seven , to ten degrees during totality. There will be no occultation of interest in February. At the beginning of February Ursa Major, Lynx, Cancer, and part of Hydra will be on the meridian about midnight. Mercury will set on the ist at 6.32 p.m., on the^ 15th at 5.13 P.M. Venus will be an evening star, setting on the 1st at 9.10 P.M. and on the 28th at 10.8 p.m. Mars will be an evening star, setting on the ist at 8.4 P.M. and on the 28th at 8. 1 7 p.m. Jupiter will rise on the 1st about 5.13 A.M. and! on the 28th at 3.48 a.m. Saturn will rise on the ist at 4.58 p.m., and on the 3rd he will rise about sunset ; on the 12th he will set about sunrise. Earthworms. — Is there more than one British species ? The large ones seem very different from the darker coloured and more cylindrical small wormSj I have seen the latter performing the functions of the adult. They are said to be oviparous, how are the eggs to be found and recognised ?— W. A. Gain. 32 HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OS SIP. THE WOOD ANTS [FORMICA RUFA). By J. Bowman. I REMEMBER well, how, that years ago, when I was merely a boy, one of the most pleasant walks in the neighbourhood of my native town, Morpeth, was always a source of wonder to me, ov/ing to its being frequented by thousands of wood ants, many of whom were every day crushed to death by the feet of passers-by, the pedestrian being in most cases uncon- scious of the fact that his track, like the track of the car of Juggernaut, was made prominent by the dead bodies of his victims, though, as a matter of fact, he was in no wise to blame ; it being a matter of extreme difficulty, nay, of absolute impossibility to put one's feet down without grinding the life out of some poor unwary ant. They were present in their thousands, and amongst them there were no lazy, basking, idlers, but each and every one seemed to emulate cardboard box, and duly arrived at his destination, somewhere in the Bothal Woods. There was the ants' nest in perfect condition literally swarming with its inhabitants. He carefully picked his way towards the nest, and when within a few feet of it he chanced to look down at his feet, he was horrified to see that his boots and the bottom part of his trousers were completely covered with ants. Having an unpleasant remembrance of being at one time the victim of an ant's bite, and that ant being only one of the lesser species, he quickly beat a retreat, and was soon engaged in getting rid of the would-be explorers. He was not to be entirely balked by such puny antagonists, and after carefully tying his trousers at the bottoms, so as to preclude the possibility of any adventurous ant getting up the inside, he once more advanced towards the nest, and this time succeeded in getting near enough to fill his box full of ants and the nest material together. He immediately con- Fig. 19.— Two members of the F. ru/a family engaged in pulling against each other for the possession of a twig. liis neighbours, in their business-like appearance as they hurried to and fro in endless trains. My ambition was, as I became acquainted with them, and their huge heaped-up nests, to secure one of these latter with its occupants, and to study more closely the habits of these busy little creatures. This seemed to me to be a rather difficult under- taking, and in truth I have not personally attempted it, as yet. About two years ago, however, it occurred to my mind that I had not yet attained the wish of my boy- hood as a naturalist — a wood ants' nest ; and accord- ingly I wrote to a Mr. Walton, a friend of mine at that time living in Morpeth, requesting him, if possible, to secure me one and to send it on to me by parcels post. This my friend essayed to do, and his experience of hunting ants' nest, as he afterwards related it to me, was a most amusing one. He set off early one morning, armed with a stout veyed his prize down to the path from which the nest was a few yards distant ; but, alas ! on reaching it, he found that in his hurry he had neglected to fasten the box-lid securely, and the ants had swarmed out in all directions. With the indomitable perse- verance of a true Briton, he once more returned to the charge, and this time he succeeded in securing and retaining a goodly number of ants, and also of nest material, which he fastened up securely, and, as quickly as possible, consigned to the care of the post- office officials, and in due course I received the precious parcel. One of the instructions which I most carefully impressed upon his mind, he unfortunately neglected to fulfil ; that was, to be sure and enclose as many of the pup£E as he could find, and thus my nest was without one of its most essential characters. After receiving the box and its contents, the first difficulty which I experienced was in transferring the HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. II ants from the box to a larvae-breeding cage, where- by I could gain a better insight to their movements. This difficulty I surmounted by placing the box con- taining the ants on a stand situated in the centre of a tin full of water, and then transferring its contents to the larvre-cage by means of a spoon. Of course, any of the ants chancing to drop from the spoon fell into the water and were easily captured. As a natural sequence of the rude behaviour to which they bad been subjected, the nest and its occupants were in a state of considerable confusion, and it was difficult to believe that such apparently puny creatures could create cosmos out of the state of chaos presented to my view. The natural instinct of the insect, soon, however, asserted itself, and a few minutes after the time of their transfer the ants v/ere all busily engaged in dragging about the pieces of twigs and leaves of which their nest is principally composed. It was some time before they pitched upon the exact situation for their new abode, and, so far as I could judge, they seemed to over-estimate the quantity of their materials, for many of them crept up the sides of the cage and attached pieces of twig, far above the kvel to which the top of their nest could attain. These pieces they seemed to fix to the side by means of a gummy secretion, and they never afterwards attempted to remove them. The nest soon began to assume its natural form as the busy builders applied their combined strength to the task, and everything in the shape of food dropped into the cage speedily disappeared into the cavity which formed the entrance to the chambers of the nest. On one occasion I dropped into the cage a piece of bread of such large dimensions that, after repeated effiDrts, the ants found it was impossible to remove it, and I felt certain that they would have to give up their efforts, and was just about to remove it from the cage when I was called away. I did not see the nest again till next day, and when I did so, I found that they had entirely covered up the bread with material from the nest. In order to do this they must certainly have worked pretty nearly all the night, as the time when I had last seen them, and when the bread was at no part covered, was nine o'clock at night and was then almost dark. I saw thevn again immediately after rising, and then the bread was entirely covered. Now to show the prodigiousness of their work, I took the following proportions : — Length of the wood-ant (Z'. ntfa) three-eighths of an inch, measurement of bread was three inches by two inches, whilst the average length of the twigs used in covering i^ inches, and some even as long again. Many of the twigs would be conveyed to their position by more than one ant, but this would be seldom, and even in most cases where this was done it would not tend to lessen the labour, for I have often noticed, that if at any time the wood ant showed any lack of reasoning power it was when two or more of them were endeavouring to drag the same object to their nest, as almost invariably in those cases, they each endeavoured to pull in opposite directions, and thus all progress was retarded. Artificial light seemed to have attractions for them, much in the same way as it has attractions for night- flying moths, and whenever I approached them with a lighted candle or taper, or indeed whenever the gas was lighted far above them, they would gather in great numbers on the glass window of the cage, and remain there until the light was put out. I have noticed too that their sense of hearing was very acute, and on the occasion of any uncommon noise in my room, they would, to an ant, rise on their two hind legs in a menacing attitude, as though awaiting the approach of an enemy. I was not, unfortunately, permitted to keep my ants for any great length of time, for soon after getting them I was obliged to have my holidays out of town, and when I returned my ants were gone, and how much I mourned their loss no one can tell. I have not to this day learned their true fate, though I have long suspected that some of my nervously constituted friends were the cause of their disappearance, as I had heard one or two of them express their fears, in an aside, that in case of their escape from the cage, the ants would prove decidedly unpleasant neighbours. I did not intend to allow this comparative failure to deter me from further observation in the direction of Heterogyna, and accordingly the following summer when staying in Morpeth I bent my steps in the direction of the Bothal Woods, where I knew I should find F. ricfa in abundance. The walk leading through these woods will class with any for beauty of scenery, a freshly delightful picture being disclosed to view every few yards of the journey ; pictures of nature which hold spell-bound even the veterans of the paint-brush and palette. On the occasion of my visit in search of F. rufa, as I was wandering along by the side of the river, my curiosity was aroused by seeing an unusual commotion in the water, and on creeping nearer to ascertain what it was, I was delighted to see that an otter was fishing in the waters, and that its frequent dives after fish had caused the commotion which had placed my inquisi- tive senses on the qui vive. I stood silent for a few moments, and presently its head appeared above water; the head disappeared, and, immediately following, part of its back came to view, that too, disappeared beneath the water, and I knew that it had gone in search of some luckless trout. I was right ; in a few moments it was back to the surface again grasping a large trout in its jaws. It swam swiftly to shore and proceeded to devour its captive, and I left it to enj,oy its rich feast in peace. Ihis, however is a digression for which I must apologise, and having done so I hasten back to my gossip about my favourite Formica. 34 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. I was first made aware of the fact that I was approaching a colony, by seeing a group of ants gathered round the dead body of one of their fellows. The living ants, by the action of their antennae, seemed to be holding a consultation over their dead comrade, and after due consultation, the corpse was seized by one of them and carried off to the nest. As I got nearer, I found that the approaches to the ant-hill are like the approaches to a great city, well- beaten tracks on which the population were travelling to and from the nest in endless trains. Even before I had optical revelation as to the exact whereabouts of the hillock, I was quite certain that I was on the right road, a beaten track about three inches wide which was densely crowded with ants, some homeward bound, while others were making their way outwards evidently in search of provender. I noticed too that up and down the tree trunks in close proximity to the nest, trains of ants were moving, always confining themselves to a space about three inches across, until they got amongst the branches, and then they scattered here and there in search of flies or insects of any description : and that their captures were plentiful, was plainly seen by the great number of victims which were being dragged down the trunk. The day previous to my visit having been a very wet one, the upper part of the nest appeared quite sodden, and being curious to find how far into the nest the rain had penetrated, I turned over the material with my stick, and found that although the rain had been coming down for something like ten hours at a stretch it had not penetrated more than two inches, and in the chambers below that depth the pupje, or ant-eggs as they are sometimes called, were snugly ensconced, *'dry as a match-stick," as they say here in the north. The wood ants appear to be unerring weather prophets, for long before the appearance of rain they know of its coming, and carry their embryo children down out of harm's way. In fine, warm weather, the pupre will be found close to the surface ; and if one should lay them bare by removing the nest material, the first care of the adult ants is to seize them and carry them away into safety. The sense of hearing in F. rufa was here again proved to me, for on clapping my hands loudly numbers of them swarmed from the nest, and creeping up the long grass stood in a defiant position as if expecting the approach of an enemy ; although possibly they might feel as much scared as the inhabitants of a volcanic country, after the first shock of an earth- quake. Having given a brief and, perhaps, a weak descrip- tion of a portion of the outside life of my favourites, I shall here leave my readers, promising to trouble them again, by the permission of our worthy Editor, with a few observations on the ants' mode of building, and their life inside their home. Havelock House,- Sunderland. GOSSIP ON CURRENT TOPICS. By W. Mattieu Williams, F.R.A.S., F.C.S. VANDAL NATURALISTS.- Collectors may be useful contributors to science, or they may be quite the contrary. In some cases the collecting mania is merely a modification of the morbid instinct of the miser, the greed of possessing and hoarding. When thus manifested and applied to botanical or zoological^rarities, serious mischief is perpetrated. The true scientific botanist who comes upon the habitat of a rare plant and desires a specimen, takes the utmost pains to obtain such specimen in such a manner that shall do the smallest possible amount of mischief as regards the mainten- ance and future propagation of the plant in its own. chosen abode. The collecting miser grabs every stalk and root he can reach, exulting in the destructioii which will increase the rarity of his own specimens. I was present at an annual conversazione of a North Country Field Club, where a very large collection of birds' eggs were exhibited by a collector who ardently expected much admiration ; but the chairman, a true naturalist, treated both collection and collector with stern justice by publicly and severely reprimanding the self-convicted Vandal, who] was known in the neighbourhood as a ruthless nest-robber and extermin- ator of rare birds. A genuine naturalist requiring a specimen for scientific purposes would take but one egg from the nest, and do this in such a manner as not to scare the parent birds, nor prevent them from hatching and rearing the rest. These remarks are suggested by a report of Professor Hillhouse on behalf of the Conference of Correspond- ing Societies to the British Association, section D. Referring to the disappearance of Native plants from their local habitats in Scotland, he states Ihe melan- choly fact, that eighty-five flowers are "practically extinct," and especially notes that the white water- lily (Ayinp/icca alba) has been almost exterminated from the lochs about Dumfries ; and that the name of the delinquent who committed the ravages has been brought before the local Natural History Society. By means of an appeal from the Society to the owners, the exterminator has been warned off in time. Other cases of extermination are mentioned, in- including those caused by the abuse of exchanging clubs, which offer strong temptations to ruthless botanical vandalism. True and Spurious Technical Education. — In Mr. R. Bannister's first Cantor Lecture on our milk, butter, and cheese supply, recently delivered before the Society of Arts, the following facts are stated : Denmark, which twenty years ago exported bad butter of ^420,000 annual value, last year ex- ported excellent butter of the value of ;[{^2,6oo,ooo which represents a sixfold increase. The improve- HA RD WICKE' S SCIENCE- G OSSIF, 35 ment in quality (and consequent demand for quantity) has been mainly wrought by a judicious expenditure of a sum not exceeding ;^ii,ooo a year in providing the country with dairy schools, where the pupils are trained in the theory and practice of dairy work, and are taught to make butter and cheese of the best quality during all seasons of the year. These facts are eloquent appeals for technical education, properly so called, which is something very different from that which is advocated by certain ■"professors and college men," who having added modern science to their classical attainments are con- descendingly willing, in obedience to the law of demand and supply, to transfer a certain portion of their university culture to the neglected artizan. Such repetition of college text-book science is very ■different from the technical education that has been supplied with such admirable results to the dairy farmers of Denmark, and equally different from that which is demanded by our artizans. It is different from the technical education that is so well supplied in this country to another and very important class — our medical students. In medical schools, the technical professors are practical physicians and practical surgeons. What would become of a medical school in which these professors were mere bachelors or masters of arts, or bachelors or masters of science, or wranglers, or fellows, however distinguished, of their colleges, but without any practical experience in the actual treat- onent of the sick and injured. In such schools there are, of course, the " preliminary scientific " classes, and the preliminary scientific examinations in chemistry, botany, natural history &c., but this is not the technical education of the student, and does not bear that name. The technical education, pro- perly so called, follows this. A corresponding distinction is demanded in the education of artizans and men of commerce. Let the "professors and college men" do their part of the work, but let us have no pedantic assumption of its completeness or superiority. It is merely subor- dinate and comparatively easy. All they are capable of teaching is within reach of all ; the difficulty of technical education comes after their work is done. It is the difficulty of finding men with practical technical knowledge, who can teach what they know on a scientific basis. Good work is being done in the less pretentious classes of the Polytechnic and other similar institutions, where theory and practice are firmly welded together ; but, on the other side, we have some sad examples of what I am justified in designating as learned charlatanism, where mere college cram is offered for what it is not, and men devoid of technical knowledge are pretending to be technical teachers. Besides the Danish dairy schools, I may refer to the horological universities of Switzerland, where highly skilled practical and scientific watchmakers are the leading professors, aided in subordinate capacity by ordinary "college men," who do the preliminary or introductory teaching. I emphati- cally repeat the word subordinate, knowing from long practical experience as a scientific teacher of artizans that, unless their preliminary scientific teaching is strictly subordinated to practical demands, it becomes worse than useless, it only disgusts those it pretends to teach, and drives them to the conclusion that pure science is dreamy, useless theorizing, that practical men should treat with contempt. Electrical Superstitions. — The melancholy collapse of " The New York Electric Sugar Refining Company" is such a glaring 7'eductio ad absurdiim of the wild expectations of electric visionaries that it may do some good as a warning. "Shut your eyes and open your purses " was the cool demand of the promoters of this model company, and dupes were actually found so eager to do so that the lOO-dollar shares were run up to 300, mostly in this country. The friend who was to have made the fortunes of these true believers refused to disclose his method, beyond telling them that he poured raw sugar into the top of his machine and electrified it somehow, when hocus pocus, presto, prestissimo ! it ran out from the bottom fully refined. He told them that the machine was made and working ; he supplied eye-witnesses who had seen it working ; he had fully succeeded, was actually at work ; all he required was that outside — especially this side — investors should share the enormous profit, and thereby re- lieve him of the burden of excessive riches. The New York "Evening Sun" tells us that "just how many were interested in the scheme does not appear. They realized about 250,000 dollars." When "Mrs. Friend and all who had been connected with the company had disappeared," leaving word that they had "gone West," it was discovered that the "raw sugar" put into the top of the machine was "refined sugar chiefly in cubes," and that there was no electrical apparatus whatever. I need not enter upon any further commercial particulars, as the above are quoted from a detailed account published in the "Times" of Jan. 5th, and will be well known before this is published, but I will improve the occasion by again pointing out the monstrous folly that so widely prevails, of regarding electricity as something more wonder-working, more mysterious than the other familiar energies of Nature, such as light, heat, or gravitation. It is far less potent than heat or light, far less mysterious and far less wonderful than gravitation. The mystery of gravitation is absolute. No human being can form any approach to a thinkable idea of the nature of the link that binds our earth to the solar orb through a distance of nearly one hundred millions of miles, and which holds together the other and vastly greater orbs at distances a million and 36 BA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP, more times greater. We feel it operating perpetually on our own bodies, and yet can form no approxima- tion to a rational idea of its mode of operation. Theories of an electric fluid or fluids, and of electric vibrations and undulations, have been attempted, and some are satisfied therewith ; but the mystery of gravitation defies even the imaginative inventors of the universal all-pervading luminiferous "jelly." The Low Antarctic Barometer. — In a recent number of "Nature," Mr. Murphy asks, "Why in all the disquisitions on fluid equilibrium are the constant low barometric pressures in the Antarctic regions south of 60° neglected ?" and he proceeds to explain them by the action of atmospheric currents. It certainly is a very curious fact that, as a ship approaches the great icy Antarctic continent, the barometer behaves precisely as though it were sailing up hill by a very gradual incline, its mean height diminishing as the ship comes nearer and nearer to the precipice wall of ice which, so far as we know, presents all around an impenetrable barrier to the mountain mass which surrounds and possibly caps the southern pole of the earth. I believe that the ship actually does sail up hill, and that for a very simple physical reason. As everybody knows, gravitation acts with a force vary- ing inversely with the square of the distance between the mutually acting bodies. Such a mass of lofty mountain land and ice as that around the south pole must pull at the ocean outside and be pulled thereby, but the mountains cannot move towards the waters of the ocean, while they, like Mahomet, are free to go to the mountain. If they do so, the order of their going will demonstrably be such that their surface will form an inclined plane sloping upwards towards the great protuberance. I am aware that certain mathematicians have esti- mated the amount of displacement of the centre of gravity of the earth due to such protuberant masses of land, and have assumed that the only result as regards ocean-level must be, that the ocean will arrange itself around this altered centre. This, although correct as regards the mean distribution of the ocean, is fallacious as applied locally, as in reference to the present question ; it is fallacious because it only measures the force of gravitation of the given mass of land, at its mean distance from the mass of the ocean generally, i.e. from the centre of gravity of the whole ocean ; but the oceanic matter immediately surrounding the Antarctic continent is at a shorter distance from this gravitating mass than is the general mass of the ocean, and as we are dealing with a mobile fluid, the scholastic formulae concerning the movement of the whole mass <t)f a rigid body with that of its centre of mass do not apply. If a body were resting on a delicate spring balance, and a great mass of lead were held just above it, the down- ward gravitation of the body would be sensibly diminished if the mass of lead weighed many tons, but the effect of the mass of lead upon the position of the centre of gravity of the earth would be im- measurably, I may say inconceivably, small. If I am right in the above, the mean height of the barometer at the head of the Adriatic and near the northernmost shore of the Gulf of Genoa and the Riviera should be less than on the Egyptian boundary of the Mediterranean ; it should also be lower on the shores of Peru than on those of Brazil, as the northern termination of the Mediterranean approaches the foot of the Alps, and at Peru the ocean is similarly near to the foot of the Andes, while at the Brazilian coast, as on that of Egypt, there is a great stretch of low land between the sea and the inland mountain masses. The barometer should fall as we sail towards the northern Mediterranean shores, and as we approach from the west to the eastern coast of South America. An experiinentum crucis may thus be applied to this question. GOSSIP ABOUT FORAMINIFERA. Part II. By Edward II. Robertson. STILL another group, the Helicostegidae, presents us with some of the most exquisitely beauti- ful forms ever presented in shells. Commencing by a small central chamber the subsequent chambers are arranged in a spiral form, each cell added being larger than that preceding it, so as to give the entire shell the aspect of an Ammonite, or other spiral shell. This group consists of the two families, Nauti- Fig. 20. — Peneroplis. Fig. 21. — Folystovzella crispa (after Carpenter). loidre and Turbonoidre — the first including those in which the successive whorls all lie in the same plane, so that the shell is equilateral, like the Nautili and Ammonites — whilst the second contains those in which the spiral passes obliquely round an axis, so that the shell becomes "inequilateral," like that of a snail. Examples of these two methods of growth are well shown in Figs. 21 and 23. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 37 It is in these these two famiUes that we find the Foraminifera so closely resembling in their exterior aspect the beautiful chambered shells of the Nautilus, the Argonaut, and the fossil Ammonite, that little wonder that the earlier naturalists actually classed them together, whereas, indeed, they are as widely separated as are the shrubs and flowers of the vege- table kingdom from the humble nostoc. The in- habitants of the former — creatures highly organised — dwell only in the last-formed and largest chamber, united with those previously inhabited by a tube or siphon — whereas the Foraminifera occupies every chamber, communication between each being afforded send off ramifications of smaller, which form a net- work for circulation of fluid. The margin of the shell is formed by a tube or siphon, which is the medium of communication between the chambers. The sieve-like structure frequently presented by the external shell is well seen in the beautiful Rosalina (Fig. 23), and in a most exquisite form I rarely meet with in Sponge sand (Fig. 24). This latter is the most beautiful that I have seen, the steel-blue tint not impairing its transparency, and the margin of each of the foramina appearing golden, even when viewed under a tolerably high power. Notwithstanding the simplicity of their structure — Fig. 22. — Portion of a slide of Foraminifera, from Sponge of Commerce. by the perforations (foramina) in the septa. Figs. 23 and 24 exhibit characteristic specimens of this group. Then, again, .we have a group in which the seg- ments are added in concentric rings, each surround- ing its predecessors. As an example may be men- tioned the Orbitolites. Some of these minute shells are opaque, or some opaque and homogeneous, some are arenaceous, i.e. composed of particles of sand cemented by shell material ; others again are exquisitely hyaline, i.e. glass-like, and tubuliferous. The minute delicacy of structure frequently pre- sented in these beautiful shells is well seen in the Operculina, each chamber being separated from its neighbours by double walls containing tubes, which if structure it can be called— these creatures neverthe- less possess some capacity of voluntary movement. Place a living one in a vessel of water and examine it with a hand magnifier. See how the tiny thing emits, through the minute orifices in its habitation, sarcode threads of wondrous tenuity, which adhere to the sides of the vessel and seem to feel their way. Is it seeming only ? Now and again these 'threads, or pseudopodia, come into contact, and, lo ! as one thread of liquid glue would coalesce with another, so these life-endowed jelly threads immediately coalesce, sometimes forming lakelets of sarcode ; the threads behind are gradually withdrawn, and by means of the foremost the creature slowly— painfully slow, so it appears to us, we who so often erroneously associate 38 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. rapidity of motion with joy, and slowness with pain — moves forward, and so the process is again and again repeated. Marvel of marvels in this world of wonders, that a globule of jelly, destitute of any external integument, should thus put forth such attenuated filaments, the atoms of which not only cohere, but serve the double office of organs of loco- motion and of cables mooring it to its anchorage ! Yet so it is ; and the factor in this wonder is that mystery of mysteries — that principle which we call life, the secret of which we are ever striving to pene- trate, but which we, living in an age of electricity and steam, seem as far off from doing as were the sages who a hundred generations agone strove to fathom its profound depths. Unendowed with the complex organisations of animals higher in the scale than themselves, these tiny things of beauty yet perform the varied functions of life efficiently, exercising a most important influence in Nature's economy. When the naturalist contemplates the labours of Fig 23. — Discorbina globularis {Rosalina varians, Schultze), after Carpenter. these inconspicuous organisms, he is overwhelmed with a feeling of wonder that, in the far past, they should have contributed more than any other animated creature to the formation of the solid crust of the earth. In deep abysses of the ocean they still con- stitute almost the only material of its oozy bed, and possibly — nay, may it not be said probably ? — they are yet building up, beneath the waters, continents for the habitation of future generations. "Whole ranges of mountains in various parts of the world, are composed of these tiny creatures, and vast dejiosits of them, spreading in the aggregate over many thousands of square miles, have been traced in Hindostan, Egypt, the Holy Land, and Arabia. These minute organisms constitute the mass of that pure white substance which has given — so it is said — its name of Albion (Alba, white) to Britain's happy land ; and how inconceivably vast these hosts, when it is remembered that this formation alone once ex- tended in a north-westerly and south-easterly direction fram Ireland to the Crimea— a distance of upwards of 1 100 miles ; its breadth from the south of Sweden to the south of Bordeaux being (allowing for breaks caused by denudation) about 840 miles ; its thickness is this country averaging from 600 to 800 feet. Imagine, if you can, reader, the myriads whose remains compose a single cubic foot of chalk, then endeavour to form some conception of the myriads of myriads that compose Soo cubic feet — and then — But there the thought is overwhelming, " in midway flight even imagination tires." Those who desire to examine and preserve these beautiful objects need experience no difficulty in ob- taining them, as they abound in the waters of the ocean in every part of the globe, existing in the greatest profusion in the seas of the warmest regions of the earth. They may be found in great abundance on the English coast, in the ooze of oyster beds, in Fig. 24. — Beautiful specimen, probably a Rotalia, viewed as a transparent object (X 35). the roots of the Laminaria, and on the zoophyte - clothed rocks, and frequently occur in vast numbers in the sand of the sea shore. I have sometimes col- lected myriads of Miliola from the hollows of ripple- marked sand in the neighbourhood of Margate — and these, with one or two of the nautiloid forms, are extremely abundant at Ventor, I.W., and other places, occurring mostly in the sand found about the roots of Laminaria. Although numerically abundant, the variety of forms found on the English coast is not great, and the microscopist will do well to search diligently the surface of uncleaned foreign shells and seaweed. But his very mine of foraminiferous wealth exists in the sand which occurs in the sponge of commerce ; a single pound of this will yield him vast numbers of the most beautiful forms. They may be separated from the sand by repeated washings, but it is only by the exercise of almost mfinite patience that they can be entirely freed from it and particles of foreign matter. This once accomplished they may be passed through fine meshed sieves of wire or muslin^ HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 39 so that the large may be separated from the smaller kinds. Before sifting, however (indeed, before I have entirely freed them from the sand, &c.), I boil them for some few minutes in water to which has been added a small quantity of liquor potassiF—%z.y a table- spoonful in a quart of water — if too strong it will disintegrate the shells. Allowing time for the sub- sidence of the minutest forms, I carefully pour off the discoloured water, and add a fresh portion, repeat- ing the process until the water comes off perfectly clear, when the residue may be thoroughly dried in an oven. A little of this white powder at a time may then be thrown into a glass vessel of water, the lighter forms of Foraminifera will float, and may be collected with a feather, the bulk of the material will have sub- sided, and, after pouring off the water, it must again be dried, and the process again and again repeated, until none but the heaviest forms sink with the sand ; these also may be gathered by stirring the contents of the vessel, and after allowing the solid particles to subside pouring off the water without disturbing the sediment, which should be gently skimmed, the skimmings set aside, and this process, also, again and again repeated, until foraminifera almost entirely free from foreign matter are ultimately obtained. The whole process is a most tedious one, but, if properly performed, the result will be in every way satis- factory. I recently prepared about thirty pounds of this "sponge sand," obtaining as the fruit of my patient labour about — "Two or three pounds of Fora- minifera ! " perhaps some eager microscopist will exclaim. Nay, not so ; but about a piled-up tea- spoonful of exquisite shells, the gathering consisting of a very large proportion of all the known forms. Fig. 22 exhibits a small portion of a slide of medium sized shells, viewed as transparent objects with a two-inch objective. Higher powers, of course, may be employed with advantage. After mounting some hundred or so slides for ex- change, I was still able to supply my micro-friends with unmounted material. Although a series of slides would exhibit many of the rarest forms, no single mount will do so, even though it may contain many hundreds, or even thousands, as mine do. I therefore keep in my col- lection not less than a score of slides, some exhibiting rare forms that do not occur in others. When preserved by the microscopist for examina- tion as beautiful objects, I consider that no method of mounting surpasses that of immersion in Canada balsam, since, if properly prepared, the structure of the shell, the foramina, the septa or divisions of the chambers, are all made distinctly visible, and they can still be viewed as opaque objects if the light be concentrated upon them, when they present an ex- quisitely opalescent appearance. Deep cells contain- ing a quantity of the loose material may also be added to the cabinet. For scientific examination it will be necessary to view them under every possible condition and mode of illumination and preparation, in order to arrive at a due conception of their form, and the disposition of the openings ; and a student will, doubtless, find it necessary to isolate the various forms for this purpose — a tedious process, but one that will well reward his patience. Great care is requisite in preparing these tiny shells for their final "mount," since the several chambers- often most obstinately, for a length of time, resist every attempt to dislodge the included air. Most persons will consider air bubbles a great disfigurement, and the preparer should invariably expel the whole of them before offering his duplicates for exchange. Once mounted, I class them according to their size, usually numbering from i to 6. No. i contains the largest forms. No. 6 the smallest. The fossil forms from the chalk may be obtained by repeated washings, and I venture to think that the method suggested by myself in Science-Gossip, in February, 1867, will yield the microscopist as fair a result as any with which I am acquainted. Davies on Mounting Micro-objects describes other methods, which some may prefer. These shells commonly occur in the flints of the chalk formation, and those curious bodies the Coscinopora, once believed to be small sponges, are now classed by Dr. Carpenter amongst the Foramini- fera. Polished sections of flint often exhibit ver>^ beautiful forms. The figures which illustrate this paper will convey a far better notion of the varied forms of these beautiful organisms than any written description would do. NOTES ON NEW BOOKS. T^OSSILS OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS ± Stratigraphically and Zoologically Arranged, by Robert Etheridge, F.R.S., &c. (Oxford : The Clarendon Press). Many years ago, the late Professor Morris brought out a "Catalogue of British Fossils," which proved of great service to geologists. But the present work is based on a much more extensive scale. The volume before us deals only with the fossils of the Palxozoic formations. Nevertheless, it runs to 468 pp. quarto of closely-printed matter. It is indeed a gigantic labour, and one which no other man than Mr, Etheridge would have found either the knowledge or the patience to have given to it. In his long and useful position as Palaeontologist to the Geological Survey, he doubtless had opportunities for dealing with a work of the present description possessed by no other man. Some idea of the labour involved may, be gathered from the fact, that it has been in hand the last twenty-four years. 1,588 genera, and 6,200 species of fossils are described, ranging from the Cambrian to the Permian forma- 40 HARDWI CKE ' S S CIENCE- G 0 SSIF. tion, and references are made to all the works in which they have been figured. The work is beauti- fully printed, as all the Clarendon Press works are ; and it is a high credit to the delegates of the Oxford University Press that their liberality has enabled a valuable work like the present to be given to the scientific world. The Eulogy of Richard Jefferies, by Walter Besant {London: Chatto&Windus). This excellently-printed and handsomely-got-up book is as idyllic and dramatic as any of the world-famed novels of which Mr. Besant is the author. Richard Jefferies was unknown to fame a few years ago. Then suddenly it was evident a new star had arisen above the horizon. Articles appeared, and even books, such as " Wild Life in a Southern County," which displayed natural history knowledge of large range, observation almost photographic in its accuracy, a sympathetic love for the objects he described, not even excelled by Gilbert White, and a power of description more than equal to that of Thoreau or of John Burrowes, the famous author of "Wake Robin," &c. Indeed, Richard Jefferies' books have added a new and additionally rich element to our already surpassingly rich English literature. Poor Richard Jefferies' life was one both of suffering and poverty ; it was only wealthy in its deep and reverential love of nature. He attempted novel writing, failed in his plots and characters, although he succeeded in their realistic natural settings. It is as a natural-history writer and observer he will be longest and best known. Besant's life of him is a most charming volume ; for although Besant never knew Jefferies personally, he had the keenest interest in and sympathy for his writings. The Building of the British Isles, by A. J. Jukes- Browne (London : George Bell & Sons). It is now a fact well known to all geologists that continents, and even islands like our own, have had a geographical evolution. You can begin with the oldest, and gradually proceed to the newest formations. Mr. Jukes-Browne has already distinguished himself in geological literature by his well-known books on " Physical Geology," and " Historical Geology ; " and now he meets the wants of students in another direction, in the admirable volume before us, wherein he deals with the physical conditions under which our islands were formed. This volume is, in short, a continuous series of geographical restorations, commencing with the Cambrian period, and ex- tending to the present. These restorations are assisted by fifteen plates, or maps, representing the areas supposed to have been covered by sea during each geological period. The book is well written, and will sustain Mr. Jukes-Browne's reputation as a geological literary authority. Oti the Senses, Instincts, and Intelligences of Animals, by Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S. (London: Kegan Paul & Co.). This is the sixty-fifth volume of the now famous " International Scientific Series." It deals with one of the most fascinating departments of modern physiological and psychological research and observation. The hard and fast lines between the two have recently been toned down into a kind of shadowy borderland. It hardly need be said that in the present work Sir John Lubbock dwells chiefly on his beloved insects ; but he by no means confines himself to the Invertebrata. His book is a perfect cyclopsedia for the general and even scientific reader, of all that is known on the subject up to date. We need hardly say that it is written with the lucidity and naturalness characteristic of all Sir John's popular writings. A list of Ii8 specially drawn illustrations help to make the text clear wherever necessary, and students will find the bibliography of works referred to in these pages a great help, as references to various authorities on the different subjects herein discussed. The Folk-Lore of Plants, by T. F. Thistelton Dyer (London : Chatto & Windus). The author is already well and favourably known as an authority upon the increasingly interesting subject of Folk-lore. The old-world sayings and beliefs regarding plants are, perhaps, more voluminous than those concerning any other group of natural objects. Consequently within the last few years several works have appeared on the fascinating subject, amongst which the principal are those of the Rev. Hilderic-Friend and Mr. Richard Folkard. When we remember how the supposed virtues of plants have been associated not only with planetary influence, but also with medicine and witchcraft, as well as with hypothetical protection from diabolical influences, it cannot be wondered at that most of our common wild plants are linked with the hitherto unwritten history of the fears, hopes, thoughts, and beliefs of the unlettered masses of the people. Mr. Dyer's book is pre-eminently readable, and in its variety of treatment he covers a larger ground than any of his fellow-writers on the subject. This will be seen by the following headings of the chapters : — "Plant Life," "Primitive and Savage Notions respecting Plants," "Plant Worship," "Lightning Plants," "Plants in Witchcraft," "Plants in Demonology," " Plants in Fairy-Lore," " Love Charms," "Dream Plants," "Plants and the Weather," "Plant Proverbs," "Plants and their Ceremonial use," "Plant Names," "Plant Lan- guage," "Fabulous Plants," " Doctrine of Signa- tures," "Plants and the Calendar," "Sacred Plants," " Plant Superstitions," " Plants in Folk Medicine," "Plants and their Legendary History," "Mystic Plants." Star Atlas, with Explanatory Texts, by Hermann J. Klein ; translated and adapted for English readers by Edmund McClure, M.A. (London: S.P.C.K.). The increasing interest in astronomical observation is best shown by the establishment of provincial astronomical societies, of which that at Liveriwol is a HA RD WICKE' S SCIENCE- G OS SI P. 41 distinguished example. This is largely due to the abundant high class literature on the subject, of which the labours of the late Richard Proctor form no small element. His Star Maps have long been in use by amateur astronomers, which latter class has been largely called into existence by means of the highly-finished and low-priced telescopes turned out by John Browning and others. The " Star Atlas " before us contains eighteen maps, printed by E. A. Funke, of Leipsic. They are exquisite examples of star-mapping and star-grouping. The young as- tronomer possessed of a telescope, will find this atlas of the utmost service. The Rev. E. McClure's translation is exceedingly lucid and interesting. Plafietafy and Stellar Studies, by John Ellard Gore (London : Roper & Drowley). A well-printed and attractively-got-up little volume, containing papers which the author has contributed to various periodicals, all of which, however, have been re- written and brought up to date, in addition to six chapters which have not appeared in print before. The illustrations are unusually good, and altogether we commend this work to the notice of all our readers interested in astronomy. The Invisible Faivers of Nature, by E. M. Calliard (London : John Murray). Perhaps there is no scientific subject more repellent to the popular mind than the study of physics ; in spite of the education in the subject by the science classes under South Kensington. Nevertheless, there are few departments of research which present such fascinating or practical results. The author's title is an excellent one, and he works it out admirably, for it is the " invisible powers " of nature which affect us more than the "visible." So we have chapters on gravitation, . molecular attraction, the properties of gases, liquids, and solids, heat, light, colour, sound, electricity, and magnetism. The writer tells us his book is intended for readers who love to hear of wonderful things. Entomology for Beginners, by Dr. A. S. Packard (New York: Henry Holt & Co.). Dr. Packard is well known throughout the English-speaking countries of the world as one of the best of living economic entomologists, and this book cannot fail to add to his fame as a popular writer on this important subject. It is illustrated by nearly 300 excellent woodcuts, and the author tells us he intended it "for the use of young folks, fruit-growers, farmers, and gardeners." The work gives a full description of the structures of insects, their growth and metamor- phosis, a synopsis of their classification, and of insect architecture. Then we have a useful chapter on insects injurious and beneficial to agriculture ; and a lengthy but not less useful one, giving directions to all sorts of beginners for collecting, preserving, and rearing insects. Two other sections will be useful to microscopists and biologists generally, for they deal with the various methods of dissecting insects as well as mounting them whole and cutting sections of them for microscopic examination. Mention should also be made of the bibliography of the subject, which is one of the fullest we have yet come across. To complete the excellence of this admirable manual, there is a lengthy glossary, and a copious index. The Bacon-Shakspeare Question, by C. Stopes (London : T. G. Johnson). The " fad " of Donelly's is over. The " cryptogram " went up like a rocket, and came down like the stick. Many Shakspearean scholars thought it beneath them to answer the man ; but the authoress of this book very properly imagined that silence might be construed into con- sent. The consequence is a most valuable contri- bution to Shakspearean literature, a useful and ready manual to lovers of Shakspeare who have not time to answer cavillers, and a valuable help to the student of English literature. We cordially commend the work. Latid and Freshwater Shells, by J. W. Williams, J. W. Taylor, and W. Denison Roebuck (London : Swan Sonnenschein & Co.). This is one of the shilling volumes of the "Young Collector Series," and the names of the authors are a guarantee for its conchological accuracy and value. The illustrations (thirty-four in number) and descriptions are excellent. The " census " of the authenticated distribution of these moUusca at the end of the volume, will be found useful to others than " Young Collectors." A Classified Index of Mr. G. W. Silve)'s Collec- tion of New Zealand Birds, by Sir Walter L. Buller (London : E. A. Petherick). This very handsomely-got-up and well-printed volume, with descriptive notes of the New Zealand birds by the one ornithologist who has best and longest studied them — Sir W. L. Buller — is a useful contribution to geographical ornithology. The ex- cellent woodcuts are mainly borrowed from Sir Walter's "Birds of New Zealand." Many of our readers will remember the birds described in this " Index," for they were exhibited at the " Colinderies," in the New Zealand Court in 1886. A Class-Book of Elementary Chemistry, by W. W. Fisher, M. A. (Oxford : Clarendon Press). Altogether a superior manual, as one would expect from its publishing source. It exhibits an unusual teaching power, and a simplicity of classification rarely seen in elementary works on this important subject. Chemistry is now very properly becoming a part of regular school work, and we can recommend no better manual to the higher schools than this. Truth for its own Sake: The Story of Charles Darwin (London : Swan Sonnenschein & Co.). This charming little book is written by Mr. W. Mawer, F.G.S., for "young people;" and the latter could not have a simpler or more interesting description of the great man than Mr. Mawer has given them. Primer of Micro- Petrology, by W. Mawer (London : Office of "Life-Lore"). We are frequently asked 42 HA RD WICKE' S SCIENCE- G OSSIP. by beginners to recommend them an elementary manual on this important and fascinating subject. Now we are able to do so by noting the cheap, well-written, and well-illustrated little book above- named. Electric Bells and all about Them, by S. R. Bottone (London : Whittaker & Co.). The author of this useful little work is well known to all practical electricians ; and those who desire to know the theory and practice of electric bells (and their number must be legion, considering the immense quantity of such bells in use) cannot do better than procure and read this book. We are pleased to see that the following useful books (which were duly noticed in our columns when they appeared) have gained public approval by the demand for extra editions — Elements of Mineralogy, by r. Rutley (London : Murby). Third edition. Nature''s Fairy-Land, by H. Worsley-Benison (London : Eliot Stock). Second edition. The Playtime Naturalist, by Dr. J. E. Taylor, F.L.S., &c., editor of Science-Gossip (London : Chatto & Windus). Our relation with regard to this book does not allow of any comment upon it, except to say that it is well bound and printed, that the 366 illustrations come out very well, and that the price is 5^'. Perhaps the editor of Science- Gossip would not mind the author of "The Play- time Naturalist" quoting the following from the preface, as showing the scope of the work : — -"The writer has a liking for intelligent English lads, just as some people have for blue china and etchings. He even ventures to think the former are more interesting objects. And, as the writer was once a boy himself, and vividly remembers the never-to-be- forgotten rambles and observations of the objects surrounding us in the country ; and, moreover, as he treasures up such reminiscences as the most pleasant and innocent of an active man's life, he thought he could not do better than enlist this younger genera- tion in the same loves and pleasures. He has endeavoured to do his best for his human hobbies, that their lives may be richer and sweeter and more manly, for what he has introduced them to in the following pages." OUR SCIENTIFIC DIRECTORY. [The Editor will be obliged, if, for the benefit of his numerous readers, secretaries of scientific societies will send notices like the following, also place and time of meeting.] RISTOL Microscopical Society : Hon. Secretary, H. A. Francis. B Chichester and West Sussex Natural History and Microscopical Society : President, J. Anderson, jun. ; Hon. Secretaries, A.Lloyd, F.C.S., F.E.S., Freeman W. Hunt. City of London College Science Society: President, Sir John Lubbock, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., etc. ; Hon. Secretaries, Mr. W. L. Fulcher, Mr. A. C. Young, F.C.S. Geologists' Association : President, F. W. Rudler, F.G.S. (Hon. Sec. Anth. Inst.) ; Secretaries, John Fullerton, M.D., F.G.S., B. B. Woodward, F.G.S., F.R.M.S. LLackney Microscopical and Natural LListory Society : President, M. C. Cooke, M.A., LL.D., A.L.S. ; Hon. Secretaries, Collis Willmott, F.R.M.S., J. T. Powell. LTarrogate and District Naturalist and Scientific Society : President, John Naughton ; Hon. Secretary, F. R. Fitzgerald. LLertfordshire Natural LListory Society and Field Club: President, F. Maule Campbell, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.R.M.S., F.E.S. ; Hon. Secretaries, F. G. Lloyd, C. E. Shelly, B.A., M.B. L^eds Geological Association : President, C. D. Hardcastle ; Hon. Secretary, Samuel A. Adamson, F.G.S. Liverpool Geological Society: President, Henry C. Beasley ; Hon. Secretary, William Hewitt, B.Sc. Penzance Natural Llistory and Antiquarian Society : President, Thomas Cornish, Esq. ; Secretary, George Fox Tregelles, Esq. Wolverha7npton Literary and Scientific Society : President, The Ven. F. W. Farrar, D.D. (Archdeacon of Westminster) ; Hon. Secretaries, Chas. R. Smith, Horace Percy Smith. SCIENCE-GOSSIP. Mr. Mattieu Williams has an interesting paper in " Scientific News " on the origin of petroleum and anthracite. He shows how, by slowly and moderately heating certain kinds of coal in an iron or brick retort, we shall obtain real petroleum and a porous coke which, on the application of pressure, becomes true anthracite. This, he shows, is the way in which it is formed in the coal-beds. Above and below the coal- seams are porous strata, through which the petroleum percolates and eventually rises to the surface like a water-spring. This accounts for its occurrence in Silurian, Devonian, and other non-coal-bearing regions. During November and December, Dr. J. E. Taylor, Editor of Science-Gossip, delivered popular extemporaneous lectures (illustrated both with diagrams and lime-light views) on " Carnivorous Plants," "The Great Ice Age," "The Natural History of Fish," "The Natural History of the Amphibia and Reptiles," " Earthquakes and Volcanoes," and a " Naturalist's Holiday in Aus- tralia," to large audiences at Beccles, Hadleigh, the HA RD WICKE'S S CIENCE- G OS SI P. 43 Museum at Ipswich, the Midland Institutes Union at Birmingham, and ,' the Literary and Philosophical Societies of York, Hull, and Wolverhampton. Mr. G. H. Morton, jun., read a paper on "The Agreement of Colour Theories with Practical Experi- ence," before the Art Congress,' Liverpool. He dwells on the difference between the three primary colours of the artist and those of the physicist. Those of the former are the pigments red, yellow, and blue, while those of the latter are the sensations — red, green, and violet. The artist's red is of a violet hue, whilst the physicist's is a yellow-red, or orange. One set contains the mean between two colours of the other set ; thus the violet of the physicist's set is obtained by mixing the red and blue of the artist's set, and the artist's blue by mixing together the physicist's red and green. The hue of a primary pigment is that one which will mix with the greatest number of colours and still retain its brightness. As a rule the hue of each primary pigment tends towards blue and away from red. This is. explained by the vibratory theory of light. The primary blue pig- ment has more of a green than a violet hue. All colours are sensations caused by the action of light on the retina of the eye. Each of the three sets of nerves when excited, produces a colour, thus there is in reality no colour outside ourselves, and a pigment is not really a colour, but an object which causes the sensation of colour. From this we see that the physicist's are the true primary colours, viz. orange, green, and violet. The Rev. Dr. Hind, rector of Honington, assisted by Professor Churchill Babington, D.D., F.L.S., rector of Cockfield, is about to bring out " The Flora of Suffolk," a Topographical enumeration of the plants of the county, showing the results of former observations and of the most recent researches. The work will contain an introductory chapter on the geology, climate, and meteorology of Suffolk, by Wheelton Hind, M.D., F.R.C.S., and will be published by Gurney and Jackson, successors to Van Voorst, Paternoster Row. Mr. C. J. Watkins, King's Mill House, Pains- wick, Gloucestershire, sends us a list of selected scales of Lepidoptera, &c., unmounted, in packets. Each packet contains a named portion of wing, sufficient to mount two or three good slides of detached scales. There is a good variety, and the price is low. We have received from Messrs. J. Wiggin and Son, Jpswich, a " Youth's Half-Crown Chemical Cabinet." Its contents are both varied and interesting, and it is without doubt the cheapest set of Elementary ' Chemical Apparatus we have seen. Messrs. Ewart and Son, 64 Euston Road, London, N.W., have, in addition to their well-known Lightning Geyser for heating water for a bath, &c., brought out a smaller one (No. 5) "for the many occasions when a small quantity of boiling water is required." It is made of copper throughout, and is carefully tinned next the water. It produces boiling water at the rate of a pint a minute, and is therefore useful for dentists' operating rooms, bedrooms, kitchens, &c. Mr. B. Piffard, of Hemel Hempstead, writes to say that the fossil from the chalk referred to in our Geol. column last month as a Cone of Taxus, turns out on further examination to be a coprolite. The Huddersfield School Board have started a Natural History Society. The chairman of the School Board, J. W. Robson, Esq., is president. The rules are a model of what such Societies should be. A comprehensive and attractive programme consist- ing of Lantern Lectures, and Rambles, Pic-Nics, and Flower-Shows, has been drawn up. We wish the Board Schools everywhere would adopt this new departure, and we congratulate the Huddersfield School Board on setting so good an example. At the last meeting of the Geologists' Association the following papers were read : " On some Bagshot Pebble Beds and Pebble Gravel," by Horace W. Moncton and R. S. Herries ; " On the Palaeontology of Sturgeons," by A. Smith Woodward. Parts 6 and 7 of the "Illustrated Manual of British Birds," by Howard Saunders (and published by Gurney and Jackson), are to hand. They fully maintain the high reputation for artistic merit and good letter-press, gained by the preceding numbers. We have received Mr. Wm. Wesley's comprehen- sive Natural History catalogue of books relating chiefly to Microscopic Zoology, Entomology, and Conchology. MICROSCOPY. Microscope Slides.— We have received two most interesting slides from Mr. E. Hinton, 12, Varley Road, Upper Holloway, N. The first is a specimen of Hydra viridis, exquisitely clean, with the natural colour preserved, and the tentacles fully ex- tended ; it is intended to be used with the Paraboloid. The second is the Medusiform gonozooid of Obelta genkulata, one of the Hydroids. It has been killed in sea-water, and the delicate tentacles (of which there is an immense number) are fully exserted as in life, the manubrium is also well shown. The preparation is most interesting, and, without doubt, many micro- scopists would be glad to see the phenomenon of the Medusa life of the Hydroid, as it cannot often be obtained. The Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society, besides containing its Transactions and Proceedings and a summary of current research in 44 HA RD WICKE ' S S CIENCE- G 0 SSIP. zoology, botany, and microscopy, has ' ' A Revision of the Qgxm.'s, Aiiliscus, Ehrb., and some Allied Genera," by John Rattray ; and also a " Note on the Large Size of the Spicules of Acis orientalis," by F. Jeffrey Bell. Celloidin. — Some reader (I forgot the name), three months ago asked for information about Celloidin. The following is from the " Microtomist's Vade Mecum," by A. B. Lee :— Celloidin is a pre- paration of pure pyroxylin, patented for Germany and England, under the name of " Schering's Celloidin." It is manufactured by the Chemische Fabrik auf Actien (vorm. E. Schering), Berlin, N. Fenstrasse, II, 12. It may be obtained through the post by writing to Schering's Griine Apotheke, Wiltick and Benkendorf, Berlin, N. Chaussee-Strasse, No. 19. •' The tablets cost three marks (three shillings) each. A single tablet would, I think, suffice for im- bedding many hundreds of embryos." If the above is not what you want, write again, and I will give any information in my power. I SHOULD be much obliged if any one would tell me how to prepare a coffee-bean for section, cutting in a Rivet-Leyser microtome. Dr. Marsh says to soak them in water till soft, but I found that they begun to germinate long before they were soft enough for section-cutting. Can any one tell me the price of the Cambridge Rocking Microtome, where it is to be got, and whether it works well, also the price of the Thoma Microtome ? — M. J. Enock's Entomological Slides. — We have received two most useful and instructive preparations byW. F. Enock, illustrating the "life-history" of the Hessian Fly {Cccidoniyia destructor). The eggs are shown in silk on the leaf of barley, and the larvre in the skin. We may add that Mr. Enock has just presented to the British Museum, South Kensington, nineteen specimens (mounted dry) illustrative of the various stages and appearances of infested barley and wheat, which are placed in the new gallery devoted to economic entomology. Microscopical Society of Calcutta. — This flourishing society has issued " Keys," for the use of members, to the Desmids, Diatoms, Fresh-water Algae, and some Genera of Infusoria. These " keys " are all printed on one sheet, and at the bottom are the initials W. J. S. ZOOLOGY. ECDYSIS. — I take this opportunity of thanking Mr. James Harvey for so kindly affording the information contained in his paper on " The Ecdysis of Insects," which appears in the October number of Science- Gossip received by last mail. Mr. Harvey's paper serves a double purpose : it places on record a practical drawing and note of his observations on PedicuJus capitis, and it enables me to associate his observa- tions, and mine (on Phthirius inguinalis) with Mr. S. J. M'Intire's on a " Spider's Foot," which I have lately found recorded in Science-Gossip, Vol. V. (1869), p. 136. — W. J. Simmotis, Calcutta. The British Mollusca, — Having recently ex- amined a copy of the " Shell-Collectors' Handbook," by J. W. Williams, I may perhaps be permitted to offer a few remarks concerning the descriptions given of certain varieties therein, for the benefit of those who have the book. Limncca stagnalis, var. eleganttda (p. 78), to the description given of this may be added : " Shell much smaller than type, animal tinged with orange," The variety figured on p. 79 (Fig. 9), appears to have no name, but it may be called var. compressa, a name 1 gave it in MS. long ago. Arion ate}-, several described varieties might be added to the list given, and also szx. fasciata, v. nov., a variety with bands resembling A. subfuscus, which I described (but did not name) in the " Zoologist," from Ireland some time ago. Limax agrestis, some varieties might be added, including var. grisca, v. nov., entirely dark greyish, which I found in Lancashire and recorded in " Naturalist," 1888, p. 55. Limax arborum, var. *'■ dicipiens''' (p. 92), should be decipiens. Helix aspcrsa var. seniifusca (p. 108), for "third whorl," read " third band." The dark variety of the animal II, aspersa, which I called nigrescens, may be changed to nigricans, because there is already a var. nigrescens of the shell. Helix hortensis,\zx. roseozonata (p. ill), the description should be : " Shell pale or whitish, with rose-coloured bands." The description given on p. 1 1 1 belongs to var. rufozonaia. It is probably best to keep the varietal name albina for the white shells of H. hortcnsis, and use subalbida for those which are very pale yellow, almost white. — T. D. A. Cockerell, West Cliff, Colorado. Love-Darts in Snails. — I should be glad if Dr. J. W, Williams, or any of your correspondents, will inform me whether the dart or spiculum amoris is present in Helix throughout the year, or only in the breeding season. I ask this because I have lately been experimenting on hybernating specimens of //. aspersa, and have failed in every case to find anything approaching " a sharp calcareous " dart as Morgan describes it. — C. A. W. Trout Cijlture. — The Howietoun Fishery in issuing the price list for season 1888-89, records one of the coldest summers experienced since the com- mencement of the Fishery. Yearlings are fully three weeks later than usual. The rearing season, how- ever, has been exceptionally successful, and fully one hundred and fifty thousand yearlings and twenty-five thousand two-year-olds are ready for delivery. A salmon hatched from ova obtained from the Forth District Board in December, 1880, and reared in the ponds, having spawned three seasons, was found in HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 45 the first week of November this year to be clean. It weighed just under three pounds, was very silvery, with about thirty jet-black starlike spots. The flesh cut pink, and the flavour was that of a fish a week in fresh water. This salmon had been fed exclusively on clams (pectctt), and was a fair specimen of those still alive at Howietoun of the same spawning. The smolts and grilse which have been bred from these fish are growing more rapidly than their parents, and we hope to show that although the first generation of artificially land-locked salmon are usually dwarfed, yet their progeny may attain to the size of Loch Leven trout— viz., 6 to lo lbs. weight. The American land-locked salmon (.S". sebago) have not yet spawned, but a few of the rainbow trout {S. irideus) spawned in April, and the fry are thriving ; the largest irideus weighed, when three years old, between three and four pounds. The crosses between salmon and trout, and between trout and salmon, are growing at the average rate of Loch Leven trout at Howietoun. The experiments in inter-breeding these crosses will be continued this season. — Thomas Winder, 8 1 Watson Road, Sheffield. Sinistral var. of Littorina rudis.— It may be interesting to record, that I found two young reversed specimens of Littoriita rudis the other day, whilst examining some drift from the Weymouth Backwater. They are very immature and of course only dead shells. I fancy that there is a large specimen of this monstrosity in the Liverpool public Museum from the Gaskoin cabinet. — B. Tomlin. BOTANY. The Sunflower. — Permit me to add to Mr. W. Lett's remarks on the Sunflower, that the popular notion as to the movement of the flowers has been exploded in Dr. Vine's Vegetable Physiology, but in that work it is stated that sunflowers have a fixed light position which is towards the S.E., if the situation is an open one. In my garden the aspect is open on all sides except the west, and there are two groups of sunflowers. In one I counted ninety heads, of which thirty-eight faced the S.E., and in the other, twenty- seven heads, of which eleven turned to the S.E. In the two groups eight flowers turned to the N.W., and the others were at intermediate angles between that point and the S.E. A closer examination showed that at least one hundred of S.E. heads were the larger terminal ones which first open, and that with- out exception the large terminal heads were turned to the S.E. I therefore came to the conclusion, that the fixed light position only applies to the terminal heads. It is well known that light from the S.E. is most active in producing heliotropism. Sonchus arvensis is an example of several plants in which the flowers bend to the sun at dawn, and following it with at first an increasing and then a decreasing rapidity until the S.E. is reached, when the more intense light checks growth. In the evening, when the light fails, the peduncles straighten themselves by negative geotropism, and are ready to repeat the operation next morning. The peduncles of sunflowers are less sus- ceptible to changes of light, as the permanent stage of growth sets in earlier than in plants where the peduncle continues elongating. The sunflower be- haves similarly to, though not quite the same as the flowers of (Egopodium podagraria, Anthriscus vulgaris. Milium, Achillea millefolium, and the ox-eye daisy, in which the fixed light position is upright in an open situation, and lateral, where the plants grow under a wall or in a hedge. — y. Jfavison, Bedford. Abnormal Growth of Plantago Maritima. — Is it not unusual to find the small bracts of this plant developed to a length of two or more inches ? A considerable number of examples I have met with at Hermitage, Emsworth, had all the flowers on the spike subtended by monstrous bracts, taking the form of leaves. Indeed, in some instances, all the floral organs seemed to have assumed that appearance. Has any one observed a similar instance ? — F. H. Arnold. Alchemilla Vulgaris. — In the "Student's Flora," 1878, Sir J. D. Hooker, in describing this plant, says : '* Moist pastures and streams, except in the S. E. of England." In May, 1886, I found a patch of A. vulgaris by a country roadside, not far from Maidstone. A. arvefisis was alco growing near. Is A. vulgaris rare in the south-east ? — Henry Lamb, Maidstone. SoNCHUS palustris. — This summer I found the marsh sow-thistle growing abundantly in this district. Many of the plants were about 7 feet in height, with stems about an inch and a half in diameter. — Henry Lamb, Maidstone. GEOLOGY, &c. Supposed Cones in the Chalk. — Since sending my note about the cones in chalk, Mr. Etheridge, in consultation with Mr. Carruthers, has changed his mind, and says they are coprolites. One thing is certain, that they resemble cones exactly, whicli coprolites have never done. There are also copro- lites more resembling the ordinary form found with them.— A Piffard. Society of Amateur Geologists. — We are pleased to observe the steady progress of this Society, which has now entered on its fifth year. Abstracts of the following papers read before the Society during the past year have been issued : " The Metallic Ores of Cornwall," by W. Semmons (Presidential Address) ; "Geological Age of Moun- tains," by J. Logan Lobley, F.G.S. ; "Lizard Dis- trict," by A. H. Williams; " Some Older Volcanic 46 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. Areas of Britain," by Grenville A.J.Cole. F.G.S. ; "Water Supply of the Metropolis," by G. F. Harris, F.G.S. "Work of Prehistoric Artizans," by W. J. L. Abbott; "Geology of the Isle of Purbeck," by Professor G. S. Boulger, F.L.S. F.G.S. ; " Silver Ore Deposits of New South W^ales," by W. Clunies Ross, B.Sc, and " Some Notes on a Chalk Section at Grays," by J. T. Day. The report for the past year shows that there have been excursions to the Museum of Practical Geology ; to Erith and Crayford ; to Hampstead ; to Caterham and Tilburstow Hill ; and to Ealing. The Meetings are held in the City (lo Arthur Street West, London Bridge). Professor Boulger, F.L.S., F.G.S,, is the new President. Gault Fossils. — I have observed the inquiry of J. H. A. Verinder, " How to preserve Gault Fossils," and the reply of Mr. W. E. Windus. I have had no experience of " Picture Mastic Varnish," but should think it too thick a varnish for the purpose, and with some specimens would be very difficult to apply. I have some Ammonites, Scaphites, and other fossils characteristic of this formation, which I obtained some years ago at Folkestone. I at once carefully washed and dried them, and then gave them a covering of " Gum Acacia " dissolved in water. No signs of crumbling or disintegration can be seen ; and the beautiful natural colours are as bright and iri- descent as when I took them from the Folkestone Chffs. I have been accustomed to treat Fossil ferns from the coal measures in this way, and I have specimens of Lycopodium, Lepidodendron, Pecopteris, &c. ; which reveal all the details of structure, with the sharpness of outline and beauty of appearance, which can be obtained (as far as I know) by no other process. In- deed the general plan in Museums and private collections, is to let them alone ; with the result, that the ferns crumble away, and .the specimen is rendered of little practical use or value. Whereas, one appli- cation of Gum Acacia will set the ferns, and unless they are exposed to strong sunlight, or undue heat, they will retain all their beauty, and show up rich and black against the Shale or sandstone, and require no further attention for many years. — T. S. King, F.G.S. NOTES AND QUERIES. The Mild Weather before Christmas. — Through the mildness of the weather that we have been favoured witli this winter, there are many records of plants flowering, birds nesting, and other works of nature which otherwise only occur during the summer months. Norfolk has been no exception to this rule, for a gentleman in Norwich had, during December, a good supply of peas growing in his garden, and they no doubt formed a relishing addition to his winter fare. Another writes to a local paper, stating that he had strawberries for his Christmas tea of which he plucked a quantity that morning, whilst another (also in a letter to] a local paper) confidently asserts that he heard the notes of a cuckoo. At Yarmouth, a partridge's nest was found on .Sunday, December 29th, amongst some furze bushes, containing fourteen eggs ; whilst roses, chrysanthemums, daisies, pansies, wild and garden primroses, and many other plants were in full bloom in open gardens and the surrounding districts. — J. B. Beckett, Trinity Place, Friars Lane, Great Yarmouth. The Mildness of the Season.— December 6th is quite phenomenal : primroses are in bloom in the lanes between this and Caerphilly. Thrushes and robins vie with each other in song. To-day I heard the note of the blackbird, and the merry twitter of finches made the air alive with sounds familiar to early spring months instead of the dark side of Christmas. — IV. //. Harris, Cardiff. The Warm Weather. — No doubt notes of unseasonable flowers in bloom have reached you, but the following may be, worth recording. A nosegay brought me yesterday contained : winter coltsfoot, yellow jasmine, orange marigold, greater leopard's bane, white musk mallow, white double fever-few, crane's-bill (Herb Robert), [lesser alkanet {A. offici- nalis), fronds of male shield fern. Altogether, a curious mixture of flowers of different seasons. — M. E. Pope. Longevity in a Beetle. — Occidit Idus Novembres Calosoma Sycophanta, exsequias ite frequenter coleoptcra, captured in a leaf-strewn oak copse behind the Marienburg at Treves at the end of June or beginning of July last, he has kept company with me for the space of four months, and had doubtless seen happy hours among the fallen leaves before we met. This is a green old age in insect-life which numbers its days at a fortnight. While he lived I fed him on raw meat and earthworms ; he went with me up to town, where his last repast was a gigantic worm from the neighbourhood of the Regent's-park Canal, that stretched to half a foot or more ; he tackled it finely, although he had long been feeble and ailing. He was a great favourite with our girl Mary at Ramsgate, on account of his shiny coat, otherwise his manners were objectionable. Of him it may be said that death has not tarnished his comeliness. The beautiful beetle has ceased to live. — A. H. Stvittton, Gery Stj'cet, Bedford. A Singular Feature in an Explosive Mixture, — The house in which I write has been the scene of a gas explosion that has scorched or cracked the cornices, blown out panes of glass, and committed direct personal injury by the ignition of hair. I was asleep at the time in a room on the top flat, with my door shut. My top pane of glass went smash, and directly beneath on the washhand-stand there remains a white blur as if a bombshell flung at it had there burst. These explosions around the lines of least re- sistance, and the solitary explosion in my room, so remote from the centre of disturbance, are both curious and remarkable as illustrating a law of nature. The accident is attributed to the opening of a window in a room where a light had been lit, and in which a gas escape had taken place owing to the lowering of a gaselier found to be defective. — A. H. Swinton. A Flea's Life, &c.— We should be glad if some of your readers would kindly give us information on the following points. What are the phases of a flea's life ? Does the tlea pass through the different stages of larva, pupa and imago, or is the perfect insect hatched from an egg ? Are white moles common ? Two have been found in this part at an interval of some months, and at places a mile or so away from each other. Are HA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSSIF. 47 apple-trees often observed to blossom twice in the same year ? We gathered several flowers on September 19th, 18S8, off two trees both loaded with ripening fruit. — N. P. Chrzastow, Poland. [P.S. — See the paper on the " Development of a Flea's Egg " (with copious illustrations), in November No. of Science-Gossip, 1885.— Ed. S.-G.] The "Wandering Jew." — Can any of your Canadian readers give the botanical name of the creeping plant known locally as " Wandering Jew " ? It is found in the North-West Provinces, particularly, I believe, in Manitoba. — John Christie. Wild Flowers at Christmas. — During a walk from Burton to Tutbury, on Saturday Dec. 22nd, I found the following plants in flower : — Stellaria media, Capsella Bursa-pastoris, Geranium molle, Genm tir- banum, Anthriscus sylvestris, Bellis perennis, Matri- caria inodoricm, Senecio vulgaris, Taraxacum officinale, Veronica Buxbaumii, Lamium album. I also found Saxifraga tridactylites, Coiiium maculatum, and rose bushes with spring leaves. — Jno. E. Nozvers, Btirton. On Christmas Day I found the following plants in flower near Burton : — Ranunculus repens. Lychnis alba, Geranium molle, Geum zirbdnum, Anthriscus sylvestris, Bellis perennis, Senecio vulgaris, Crepis virens, Sojtchus asper, Lamium purpur cum, Lamitim album, Veronica Buxbaumii. The honeysuckle was in leaf, in several places by the roadside.— ^^"t'- E- Nowers, Burton. NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS. A. B.— The eggs reached us in a very shrivelled and dried- up condition. They appear to be those of the common Earth- worm. Marv E. — Yoii had best apply to the secretary of the Entomological Society for information about Miss Ormerod's paper on Preserving fruit from Caterpillars. To Correspondents and Exchangers. — As we now publish Science-Gossip earlier than formerly, we cannot un- dertake to insert in the following number any communications which reach us later than the 8th of the previous month. To Anonymous Querists. — We must adhere to our rule of not noticing queries which do not bear the writers' names. To Dealers and Others. — We are always glad to treat dealers in natural history objects on the same fair and general ground as amateurs, in so far as the " exchanges " offered are fair exchanges. But it is evident that, when their oflfers are simply Disguised Advertisements, forthepurposeof evading the cost of advertising, an advantage is taken o( onr gratuitous insertion of " exchanges " which cannot be tolerated. We request that all exchanges may be signed with name {or initials) and full address at the end. Special Note. — There is a tendency on the part of some exchangers to send more than one per month. We only allow this in the case of writers of papers. Lost, or arrested in transit, the botanical circulating maga- zine, " Sachsiana." Any member having it in his possession will please forward it to J. Hamson, Bedford. B. B. Le T.— We have looked through all the late Frank Buckland's works, but cannot find any account of the " Beavers of Bute." Perhaps it appeared in " Land and Water," or some of our correspondents may be able to inform you. A. Verindek. — We have not heard who is editing the new edition of " Carpenter on the Microscope." The coloured plate of Foraminifera appeared in the September number of Science-Gossip vol. for 1885. W. J. L.— The desirability of publishing another "General Classified Index" to the vols, of Science-Gossip is under consideration for the end of the present year, when we shall have completed the 25th vol., and hope to celebrate our " Silver Wedding ! " A. Mavfield. — Lastrea multijlora does not exist as a British species of fern. We believe it was a name given to a variety by Newman, but which does not appear to have been generally adopted. J. C.— The fossil is Ammonites cati7iatus. The fragment of stone is a partially metamorphosed volcanic ash. B. D. P. — Your second paper shall appear in due course. W. H. Thrush. — A Queen Elizabeth's shilling varies in value from two to iive shillings, and a sixpence from one to two shillings, according to condition. A. G. Hammond. — Is your account of the Fossil Hunt illustrated 1 Send it on. EXCHANGES. Offered, Fossil shells from the Paris basin, in exchange for British or other fossils, recent exotic shells, or prehistoric implements. — Monsieur Bonnet, 9 Rue de Mazagran, Paris. Rare Australian, New Zealand, and other foreign shells, mostly land and freshwater, or large examples of U. pictorum, for any of the following : Vertigo Lilljeborgi, V. tumida, V. alpestris, J^. pusilla, Sticcinea P/eifferi, Sph. lacustris, var. Rickholtii, Pisid. nitidtim, var. splendens, L. peregra, vars. picta, ?ntidit, succincrformis , and stagnali/ormis, L, auricu- laria, vars. monardi and magna, L. stagnalis, vars. variegata and roseolabiata, Z. fulvus, var. viridula, H. aspersa, var. virescens, -H. riipestris, var. viridescenti-alba, CI. latninata, var. atbida, Coch. trideiis, var. crystallina, Coch. lubrica, vars. hyalina and viridiila. — W. A. Gain, Tuxford, Newark. Thirty or forty histological specimens of normal tissues, all different, in exchange for low powers (2, 3, or 4 inch, universal screw) or sub-stage condenser,] li in. diameter. — J. Herbert Frederick, Kornthal, Sidcup. Wanted, Coddington lens, and few preserved snakes, lizards, etc. Can oiler choice micro slides, parasites, diatoms, anatomical, botanical, etc. — Suter, 5 Highweek Road, Totten- ham. ^1 Duplicate diatom micro slides in exchange for others. Lists 1 exchanged. — E. A. Hutton, Mottram, Manchester. V Wanted, offers of good named British or foreign marine shells, Forbes' " British Starfishes," or Gosse's " Actinologia Britannica," for the following: Science-Gossip, half-calf. 1873-4, 1875-5, 1878-9; "The Microscope," fifth edition, by Carpenter ; " Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates," by Owen ; " Manual of Botany," fifth edition, by Balfour. Condition, nearly new. — Write first to H. C. Chadwick, Beech Road, Chorlton-cum-Hardy, Manchester. Thirty-six varieties downs of British birds, including sand- grouse, offered in exchange for two well-mounted slides, or other unmounted micro material. — W. Sim, Gourdas, Fyvie, N.B.' For exchange, A. cygnea, D. folymorplia, P. contecta, P. albus, corneus, and spirorbis, L. peregra, L. nitidus, M. nemoralis, kortensis, and arbTtstoriiiit, B. obscurus, Coch. iridens, &c. Wanted, '/". contortus, P. vortex, H. virgata, Cantiana, caperata, ericetorum, CI. bipticata, and many others. — Thomas Smith, Park Hill Cottages, near Burnley, Lancashire. Wanted, good woiks, with plates, on the Continental eocene and miocene formations. Offered, large selections of exotic shells, British fossils, minerals, scientific and philosophical works, or state requirements. — J. E. Linter, Arragon Close, Twickenham. Wanted immediately, larva, pupa and imago of privet hawk moth, in good preservation ; will give in exchange Dawson's "Chain of Life" (new). — Sphinx Ligustri, 80 Clifton Street, Lytham. Duplicates. — Cardamines, sylvanus, pamphilus, alexis, urticse, Jacobs, caja, auriflua, ulmata, dispar, fulvata, chi, and mensuraria. Desiderata numerous. — F. Emsley, 98 West Street, Leeds. Offered, spherulite and pitchstone from Arran, white dolerite and volcanic bombs, Ayrshire. Wanted, fossils. — I. Smith, Monkredding, Kilwinning. Wanted, to correspond with collectors with the view of exchanging the rarer kinds of rissoas, and other rare shells. Desiderata very numerous, including mangelias and odostomias. Lists sent.— A. J. R. Sclater, M.C.S., 23 Bank Street, Teign- mouth. Offered in exchange, the following micro objects: star- shaped Placcntula asterisans, striated Orbulites striata, wrinkled Polystomella crispa, Nutnmulites complanatus, rare and fine spines of echinus, minute corals and shells, very small and perfect, and rare sorts. Wanted, Pecten glaber, V. sulcata {from the Adriatic Sea), also Pecten niveus, Trochus granulatiis, Anomia striata, Pecten tigrinus, Scalaria turtonur, lanthina exigua, I. rotundata, and Emarginula Jissura.—A. J. R. Sclater, M.C.S., 23 Bank Street, Teignmouth. Duplicates. — Spk. rivicola, U. inargaritifcr, D. poly- morpha, P. contecta, V. piscittalis and cristata, PI. albus, glaber, dilatatus, spirorbis and contortus, L. triincatula, palustris and glabra, Z. glaber, nitidus and purus, H. sericea, arbustonim and hispida. Pupa secale. Cock, iridens, &c. &c. Wanted, H. lamellata andpygmaa; no other species wanted. — F. C Long, 8 Cog Lane, Burnley, Lanes. An injecting syringe and Parke's micro lamp, in exchange for portable microscope, or offers. Also two first parts of Saville Kent's "Infusoria."—!. S.Williams, Livingstone Villa, Iffley Road, Oxford. , „ ,„ Offered, the " Conchologist's Text-book" (Macgillivray), "Entomologist's Text-book," with coloured plates (Westwood), 48 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. " Half-hours with the Microscope" (Tuffin West), twenty odd numbers of the " Entomologist," previous to 1870, "Insect Hunters" (Newman). Wanted, Rimmer's "Land and Fresh- water Shells," side-blown eggs, shells, &c. — Thos. H. Hed- worth, Dunston, Gateshead. Sheep flukes (unmounted) in exchange for other interesting object. — I. S. Williams, Livingstone Villa, Iffley Road, Oxford. Wanted, English regal or Colonial copper coins, 17th or 1 8th century tokens, also war or other medals, in exchange for named English shells or fossils. — F. Stanley, Margate. Wanted, the two last volumes, or any odd numbers from 166, of C. £. Sowerby's small edition of "English Botany," containing plants of Great Britain. Good exchange. — Mrs. Bishop, The Platts, Watford. Duplicates. — lo, S. ligustri, ligniperda, tipuUformis, saiubucata, tiliaria, rhomboidaria, phragmitis, lithojcylea, chrysitis, iota, lariciana, and occuliana. Desiderata, pupse of A. sinuata, and offers. — George Balding, Ruby Street, Wisbech. Wanted, Vol. H. of Science-Gossip, bound or in numbers, the latter preferred ; mounted micro slijies for polarizer, offered in exchange, or offers. — W. Wise, Chemist, Lancashire. Wanted, dragonflies, crickets, grasshoppers, locusts, ear- wigs and cockroaches. Offered, lepidoptera, shells, echino- derms, algee, &c. — W. Harcourt Bath, Ladywood, Birmingham. To beginners. — I have about ico duplicates of British butter- flies, which I will distribute among the first half-dozen readers of Science-Gossip who will forward box and return postage before Feb. 15.— W. Harcourt Bath, Ladywood, Birmingham. Twelve specimens of V, urticce, in papers, will be posted to any juvenile reader of Science-Gossip who will forward a stamped directed envelope. — W. Harcourt Bath, Ladywood, Birmingham. Quantity of minerals, &c., in exchange for volcanic, gem, or auriferous sand for micro slides ; also red crag fossils in exchange for common silurian ones. — A. G. H., 10 St. John's Hill, New Wandsworth, S.W. Shall be glad to exchange any of the following for clutches of many other species : clutches of American robin, sedge warbler, gold crest, great tit, jackdaw and magpie, reed bunting, tree and meadow pipit, skylark, nightjar, golden- winged woodpecker, moor hen and coot, lapwing, ringed plover, curlew, snipe, common and Arctic terns, sooty and Riippell's terns, kittiwake, common L. B. B. and G. B. B. gulls, great skua, little grebe, mute swan, and eggs of shel- drake, pheasant, partridge, hen harrier, Dartford warbler, water rail, dunlin, puffin, guillemot, ringed guillemot, razor bill, whimbrel, and stormy petrel. — Capt. Young, R.N., Rod- well, Weymouth. Wanted, microscopic or stereoscopic slides, in exchange for magic lantern, 2-in. condenser, with thirty slides. — H. Ebbage, 344 Caledonian Road, London. Wanted, stereoscope and slides ; exchange microscope and slides. — H. Ebbage, 344 Caledonian Road, London. For exchange, a collection of 400 micro slides (many pro- fessionally mounted), also pine cabinet to hold 288 slides. Wanted, Shaw's " Eclipse " photo apparatus, or other good detective camera, i-plate size, must be in good order. — W. A. Hyslop, 22 Palmerston Place, Edinburgh. Science-gossip for Feb. 1885 {No. 242) wanted, to make up volume. Will pay \s. for clean and complete copy, or send MoUer's test-slide [Gramtnatophora subtilissima) , dry, in ex- change.— M. Hafen, Ditton, Widoes, Lanes. Duplicates. — H. sericea, H. lapicida, H. pulchella, //. arbustonint, V. alpestris, and many others. Wanted, British land, freshwater and marine shells. — A. Hartley, 8 Cavendish Road, Idle, near Bradford, Yorkshire. Wanted, " Quarterly Journal Geo. Society," part containing paper on the "Thanet Sand," Prestwich, 1852; also part con- taining paper on "The Woolwich and Reading Beds," Prest- wich, 1854. — Geo. E. East, jun., 10 Basinghall Street, London, E.G. Wanted, whole insects in spirit, Brilish or foreign, also zoophytes ; all must be correctly named. Well-mounted micro objects or micro material offered in exchange. A well-preserved scorpion (recent), in first-rate condition ; open to any offer in any of the above, or other unmounted objects. List to — R. M., 24 Park Road, Clapham, London, S.W. Offered, L. C., 8th ed.: 5^, 9, 58, ddb, 100, 119, 126, 127, 17s, 178, 189, 197, 199, 207, 222, 234f, 249c, 251, 253, 256, 300, 357. 394'^. 439. 509^ 5 14'^. SU'. S14/. 5M^. S'4''. SM^. SM". S14A 515*. 526, 532a, 532*, 57si, 585, 601, 649, 650, 662, 712, 788, 795, 904, 917, 928^, 974, 995/!^, 1267, 1326, 1412, 1417, 1418, 1558, 1563, 1579, 1590, 1591, 1592, &c. &c. Lists requested. — F. C. King, Bank Villa, Fulwood, Preston. For exchange, first-class clutches of eggs from Asia Minor and North America, such a.s Egyptian vulture, osprey, bald eagle, kites, buzzards, hen and Montajus' harriers, lesser kestrel, hobby, mottled owl, roUeri, bee-eater, Barbary and red-legged partridges, Andalusian quails, com. quails, bustards, pratincoles, sooty and noddy terns, and others. Send lists of duplicates to — W. Raine, Walton Street, Toronto, Canada. Wanted in clutches, eggs of white-tailed eagle, peregrine falcon, kestrel, long-eared owl, short-eared owl, dipper, red- wing, gold crest, meadow pipit, skylark, cuckoo, golden plover. curlew, heron, kittiwake, oystercatcher, com. gull, stormy petrel, spoonbill, raven, red grouse, wood and purple sand- pipers, swan, ducks, and many others. Offered, several clutches of osprey, Pallas' sand-grouse, Bartram's sandpiper, Egyptian vultures, and over fifty other species collected in North America and Asia Minor. — W. Raine, Walton Street, Toronto. Science-Gossip for i8n5-68 (bound) ; 1875 (unbound) ; and Nos. 121, 177, 179: "Knowledge," parts 1-14 ; "Natural History Review," 1865. Wanted, "Entomologists," part?, — Aug., 1881, Oct.-Dec, 1881, Jan. -June, 1879 ; Science-Gossip, 1871 ; Lepidoptera, or micro material. — C. S. Bouttell, 7 Irene Road, Fulham. Wanted, standard works on zoology, comparative anatomy, microscopy (especially histology), &c. — Apply, stating require- ments, to F. R. Rowley, 60 Lower Hastings Street, Southfields, Leicester. Unaccepted offers not answered. Will exchange a collection of about 100 species of British b'rds' eggs, for botanical or microscopical books. — J. E. Nowers, 71 Branstone Road, Burton-on-Trent. For exchange, Science-Gossip, vols. 1865, i866, 1867, 1868, 1869, and 1874, 1875, 1876, 1877 (unbound), also 1870 (bound). — J. G., 26 Gt. Chatham Street West, Manchester. Wanted, Ped. cap., vestimenti, and pubis, and other parasites, in exchange for micro slides, or offers. — Fred Lee Carter, Gosforth, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Small duplicate collection of British land, freshwater, and marine shells, forty species, named, in exchange for micro slides, turntable, or offers. — J. B. Beckett, Trinity Place, Friar's Lane, Gt. Yarmouth. A Quantity of good micro slides in exchange for books, other slides, or offers. — A. Draper, Cemetery Road, Sheffield. British and Foreign algaa oflfered in exchange for others, Tasmanian, Australian, and S. American species especially desired. — E. M. Holmes, Bradbourne Dene, Sevenoaks, Kent. Marine algse, collected in Shetland and North Ireland, wanted in exchange for rare southern species. — E. M. Holmes, Bradbourne Dene, Sevenoaks. What offers for sea anemones and other specimens for sea- water aquarium ? Wanted, Science-Gossip numbers for November and December, 1881, also for years 1882 and 1883. — Walter Hollebon, Newark House, Langney Road, East- bourne. Wanted, last edition of Hobkirk's "Synopsis of Mosses," in exchange dried plants, mosses, birds (stuffed) or eggs. — J. A. Wheldon, High Ousegate, York. Wanted, good specimens of most of the British Grasses, in exchange for Botanical, or Pathological micro-slides (the diagnosis of the Pathological guaranteed). — B. Piffard, Hill House, Hemel Hempsted, Herts. Wanted, British stone implements in exchange for slides as above. — B Piffard, Hill House, Hemel Hempsted, Herts. BOOKS, ETC., RECEIVED. "Evidences of the Antiquity of Man in Eastern North America," by Chas. C. Abbot."— " The Antiquary."— "The Bookworm." — " Proceedings of Society of Amateur Geologists." — "Evidences of the Antiquity of Man in Leicestershire," by Montague Browne, F. Z. S. — " Official Year Book of the Scientific and Learned Societies of Great Britain and Ireland for 1887." — " Mineral Resources of the United States." — "Geo- logical History of Lake Lahouton," by J. C. Russell (Washington). " Pneumatics," by C. Tomlinson, 4th ed. (London: Crosby Lockwood & Co.).— "Book Ch.at."— "The Century Magazine." — " The Amateur Photographer." — " The Garner." — " The Naturalist." — " Cassell's Technical Edu'da- tor." " The Botanical Gazette."—" Belgravia."—" The Gentle- man's Magazine."—" American Monthly Microscopical Jour- nal."— "The Essex Naturalist." — "Wesley Naturalist," — "Journal of Conchology." — "The Midland Naturalist." — " Research in Life-Lore." — "Feuilles des Jeunes Naturalistes." — "The American Naturalist." — "Journal of Microscopy and Nat. Science." — "Canadian Entomologist." — "Ottawa Natu- alist." — "Victoria Naturalist." — " The Microscope." — Journal f Royal Society of New South Wales, &c. &c. Communications received up to the ioth E. B.— W. J. S.— I. T. D.— W. A. G.— M. P. C. J. B.— J. H. F.— R. S— T. W.— E. E. G.— T. A. J. H. C— Dr. C. C. A.— H. C. C— J. S.— J. G. T. R.— E. & Soil.— W. W.— J. G.— R. C— T. — W. S.— J. E. N.— B. P. M.— S. K. G— R. M.- F. E.— E. H. N.— J. W. W.— W. H. T.— H. L. J. E. L.— W. J. A.— R. M.— B. T.— W. M. W.- A. G. H.— M. H.— F. C. K.-A. H.— G. E. J. P. N.— W. A. H.— T. R.— G. B.— W. W.— H. — W. H. B.— Mrs. B.— T. S. K.— F. S. J. B. Y T. H. H.— A. B.— F. L. T.— W. H.— E. M. J. B. B.— F. L. C— J. G.— F. C— M. J.— J. E. F. R. R.— C. H. B.— A. C. T,— A. ]. J.-B. T.— ' F. H. H.— B. P., &c. &c. ult. from : ,— A. G. T.— D. A. C— M.— P. T.— S.— E. A. H. -A.J. N. S.— — F. C. L.— — W. A. L.— E.-J. C- E.— H. PM. .—J. S. W.— H.— A. D.— N.— C. E.— ■T. & B. K.— HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 49 LUNAR INFLUENCES. Bv A. W. BUCKLAND, Author of "The World Beyond the Esterelles," &c. &c., IMember of the Anthropological Institute, and Hon. Member of the Bath Lit. and Phil. Association. graph following para- from a con- temporary, has to do with certain lunar phenomena very little studied or understood, even by astronomers ; but which can hardly be ignored, in face of the persistent testi- mony of practical agriculturists in cli- mates differing from our own : " The influence of the moon upon vegetation is an interesting problem awaiting solution. A recent writer upon the subject mentions that wood- cutters in Cape Colony and in India insist that timber is full of sap, and unfit to be cut at full moon. Another ■observation of lunar influence in Cape Colony is the rapid spoiling of meats and other provisions when exposed to moonlight, though this may be due to the fact that the light serves as a guide to insects." * Before treating of these influences, which wq believe to be worthy of scientific enquiry and investi- gation, we will just glance at the numerous super- stitions still lingering among us in connection with the lesser light which rules the night, and see whether we can discover a few grains of reason in the apparent absurdities. When you first see the new moon you must courtesy, and turn your money for luck. It is unlucky to see the new moon through the window, or over your left shoulder. " If the new moon you see Neither through glass nor tree, It shall be a lucky moon to thee." * " Wit and Wisdom," Jan. 1S89. No. 291. — March 1889. A Saturday moon is always unlucky, for the weather will be bad during the ensuing month ; but to see the old moon in the lap of the new betokens fine weather. If the crescent moon lies on her back she holds the water in her lap ; but, if the horns are upright, the water will be poured out, and it will be a wet month. You should cut your hair in a waxing, and your nails in a waning moon. Herbs should be gathered when the moon is full, and you must kill your pig when the moon is waxing, or the meat will shrink in cooking. These are the principal superstitions relating to the moon, and they seem to fall naturally into three parts : the first of which may be traced to moon- worship, the second to the influence of the moon on the weather, and the third to the effect of moonlight upon plants and animals. The worship of the moon is probably as ancient as that of the sun. In most countries the sun held the first place, the moon being regarded as his consort ; but in some ancient religions the moon was regarded as the chief divinity, and was the male element, the sun becoming female. This metamorphosis is still to be traced in many languages, as in the German, but, either as brother and sister, or husband and wife, the sun and the moon have held sway over mortals from ihe earliest times to the present day. If we look to the attributes assigned to lunar deities, we shall find they are almost always associated with the chase ; thus the attributes of Artemis, the moon goddess of the Greeks, and of Diana, her representative among the Romans, are the bow and quiver, arrows or a spear, stags and dogs. We may, therefore, conclude that moon-worship originated among hunters, and that the horned divinities met with so frequently in ancient sculptures have some connection with the moon, the horns representing the cusps of the crescent moon. We find Assyrian and Egyptian goddesses thus adorned, and it would seem from various notices in the Bible, that the Hebrews were given to the use of "Round tires like the moon" (Isaiah iii. 18) as D so HA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSSIF. head ornaments. It seems probable that these round tires may have resembled those golden ornaments found in Ireland and in ancient Etruria, and called lunula. It is certain that the Hebrews, like most Eastern nations, thought much more of the influence of the moon than we do in our colder clime. The new moon was ushered in by the blowing of the silver trumpets and by special sacrifices. But we search in vain in Eastern lands for any notices of superstitions connecting the moon with the weather, for it is only in a variable climate like our own that the weather is watched with solicitude, and it is by no means clear, notwithstanding the dictum of astronomers and philosophers, that in our sea-girt island the moon is wholly devoid of influence upon the weather ; for, when we consider that she regulates the tides, and that, at least on the sea-coast, the extremes of the tides certainly bring about atmos- pheric changes, these changes may truthfully be assigned to the primary cause, that is the moon. The extent of the change would, however, naturally depend greatly upon the direction of the wind and the degree of humidity of the atmosphere at the time, but we believe there is enough influence traceable to the moon to justify to some extent the weather prophecies of our ancestors. When, however, we turn to the influence of the moon upon plants and animals, we find the minimum effects in our cold, variable climate, and the maximum in hot countries under clear skies. Yet even here, perhaps, the moon may have more effect upon the growth of plants than we are willing to recognise ; and, as regards animal life, every keeper and atten- dant at a lunatic asylum knows how much the unhappy inmates are excited at full moon, and the bowlings of dogs on moonlight nights show that they too are affected in some way. It is, therefore, possible that there may be some truth in the old %vives' notion, that pigs should be killed when the moon is waxing. As regards the growth of hair, we cannot speak positively, but we have often noticed that the nails grow more rapidly when cut during the waxing period of the moon. These things are not superstitions, but may be proved or disproved by experiment, and it would seem to be worth while to test experimentally those lunar influences which modern philosophy is too ready to reject, simply because they were old-world beliefs. In the blessing accorded to the tribe of Joseph, through the mouth of Moses, we find especial mention of " The precious things put forth by the moon " (Deut. xxxiii, 14), and certainly, in hot. countries, it is well known that vegetation is largely dependent upon the moon. We have been told by planters in the West Indies that the growth of the sugar-cane during moonlight nights is twice as great as when there is no moon, as may be proved by the distance between the knots or divisions. The Chinese attach great importance to the influence of the moon, so timing the sowing of the seed as to ensure the greatest amount of moonlight for the springing corn. The appellation of "moon-struck" is, amongst us, a term of ridicule, but in hot countries it is a reality, and no one would think of sleeping unsheltered under the influence of the light of the full moon. A curious effect of the influence of the moon on animal matter is well known at the Cape of Good Hope. A favourite food among the colonists is a fish called siioek ( Thyrsitcs Atiin). This is not generally eaten fresh, but is cured in a particular way by the Malays. Now if this curing takes place during the time when the moon is at the full, and the light of the moon is allowed to- fall upon it when drying, all who partake of the fish thus cured, are seized with a swelling of the face, not particularly painful, but very disagreeable and dis- figuring, and the unhappy snoek-eaters wander about like so many grown children afflicted with mumps. From these few instances it will be seen that the influence of the moon is not altogether mythical, and further research may show that our ancestors were justified in attributing to the silver planet a share in controlling the forces of nature greater than will be admitted by modern philosophers ; and that, even in changes of weather, it is at least possible that the moon may have some influence, although only at new and full moons, when the tides are highest. That the weather should be affected by an eclipse, as many suppose, can scarcely be imagined, since an eclipse is only a passing shadow, and when we come to the absurdities of courtesying and turning money at new moon for luck, we see only the lingering survival of old customs and beliefs which, even in this century of enlightenment, cannot be wholly eradicated ; for in every human heart there still seems to be some little dark corner given up to superstition, and probably even now, as related by Aubrey (1678), some of our English country women may be found to sit astride on a gate or stile the first evening the new moon appears, saying, "A fine moon, God bless her I " A PEEP AT THE ROMAN WALL. By the Rev. HiLDERic FRIEND, F.L.S. THE quiet little town of Haltwhistle, on the Newcastle and Carlisle Railway, is a capital point from which to start for a peep at this interesting relic of former times. It is curious to notice how peaceful everything now is, where, centuries ago, all was life and bustle. It is fascinating to try and recall the appearance of the skilled masons trimming the blocks of whinstone and placing them in position along the crest of the hills, or in the secluded valleys along which the wall was built, and when we see how sharply the stones were faced, and then visit the quarry in which the very same stone is blasted and squared to-day for paving our cities, we wonder at HA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OS SI P. 51 the little progress which has been made in this branch of labour during the centuries that have gone into the historic past. If we leave Haltwhistle on a bright, crisp morning, full of vigour and ready for an exciting tramp, a very pleasant day lies before us. After a brief glance at the town — which is not so interesting as some others in the neighbourhood, either historically or artistically — we strike away to the north-west, and after a brisk walk, come to valleys, ravines, streams, quarries, and mines of exceptional attractiveness for the student of natural history. In the streams and pools, the fresh- water plants and shells abound, and not a few are far from common. While every bank, nook, and cranny is bedecked with moss, and lichen, and fern, the quarries present many features of interest. Coal, clay, sandstone, are all in close proximity, and each invites our attention. Worm-tracks, striking ripple- marks and rain-drops abound in the latter, which varies greatly in texture and colour, and often contains a good deal of mica and other minerals. The streams too, especially where unpolluted by mining operations, prove attractive to geologist as well as botanist, for they have many a story to tell of obstacles presented to their course, and conquests won over boulders of many kinds, which now repose in the rugged water-course like subdued and vanquished heroes. Such wayside studies as these beguile the time and make it pass all too quickly, and we find by our watches that it is necessary to hasten on. We there- fore strike for a farm-house and hamlet known as Wall-town, and having reached the heights to the north, find ourselves on the very ridge along which the wall was constructed. Like the Great Wall of China, this lesser structure ran up and down, in and out, following the course of stream and cliff which aided the work of defence. Here we find ourselves actually on the wall itself, and now for miles in either direction we can trace its rise and fall (in more senses than one), and study many points in connection with its history. We soon observe that the line of hills which run along from west to east are of an eruptive formation, the rocks standing out here and there in such a way that when a small portion is dislodged with the geological hammer, its green tint and volcanic origin may be seen at a glance. This is the stone, here always known as "whinstone," when 171 sitti ; " cobbles," when found in river bed or amongst gravel, and generally known as "basalt" elsewhere. This is the stone which the Roman workmen quarried with such patience and skill for the construction of the wall throughout this part of the district. Here and there we find sandstone blocks intermingled, and the rubble which fills up the middle portion is perhaps as often of sandstone as of basaltic origin, but, as a whole, thousands upon thousands of whin- stone blocks, all square-cut and beautifully laid, form the northern and principal face of this historic pile. We take the westerly direction for convenience, and because there are two special points of interest to study, and wend our way along the top of the wall, or by its side, now admiring the pretty patches of Lecidea covering the more exposed rocks and stones of l)asalt, now culling a pretty fern or fruiting moss, and anon fishing out a banded Helix or other thing of beauty, till at last we alight on one of the stone turrets or watch towers, which stood about three hundred yards apart, and thus enabled the sentinel to keep up communication all along the wall. These towers are twelve feet square, and as several of them have been cleaned out, they have told their own story of the past. At Greenhead we shall have an opportunity of seeing one of these in the process of being opened, but let us first step aside for a moment to ascertain whence comes the chink, chink, which we hear. Yonder, some hundred feet below us there are workmen busy with pick, and shovel, and hammer. They are quarrying whinstone, and the ridge along which we are walking is gradually receding before them. We look at the top of the works, and are amazed at the way in which the basalt has been weathered, then carefully descend into the workings beneath. What a splendid sight ! That bold face of bluish-green rock has a wonderful tale to tell. It was once a super-heated mass which could not contain itself within the narrow bounds imposed by cold, unbending rocks, and with one mighty effort tore asunder the chains which bound it and poured out its fury on the quivering earth-crust to cool in due course and set into this solid mass ! Here, guided by an intelligent Welsh quarryman, we see the very sandstone over ! which the lava flowed, and it is curious to observe how both the sandstone and basalt have been affected by the action. The stone quarried here varies in texture at different heights, from which we infer that the coarser, denser particles by their specific gravity subsided to the bottom while the mass was still mobile and liquid, the finer particles floating nearest the surface. We have never visited a quarry which produced upon us a profounder impression than this one has done. And now for a run to Carvoran which is nigh at hand, and we shall see the quarter-miie turret which has just been opened. It stands off the main road — the Maiden Way, perhaps, of the Romans — and is near a farm-house. Among the " finds " there are sundry pieces of pottery, some iron articles, bones of different kinds, the jaw of a carnivorous brute, whose teeth have been greatly worn down by the constant crushing of bones, and sundry pieces of horn which have evidently been employed in various ways. We are now within a short distance of Greenhead Station, whence we can take train to Carlisle or Newcastle or if we prefer, can run on to the pretty resort at Gilsland and after a night's rest, a drink at the Spa, and sundry pilgrimages, find our way to Birdoswald where one of the most complete stations on the D 2 52 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. Roman Wall may be seen. We have had but a peep, and that peep has made us anxious to see more. If we cannot satisfy our desires we may procure the veteran Dr. Bruce's work on this subject and study it at our leisure. Now let us away for a wash and a cup of tea to refresh us after our ramble. A CHAPTER ON DEGENERATION. THERE are certain animals which, beginning life well, gradually lose their characters, become parasitic, or attached to some object, their senses become aborted, their limbs useless, and only the functions of digestion and reproduction are performed with their primary vigour. Green-house plants are often troubled with a little pest called the Scale. It is found as a small brown or yellow scale on the leaves and stems of divided into segments, each segment bearing a short blunt process on each side. The eyes are small, and situated on each side of the flat round head. It has short, somewhat hairy antennae, and six short legs. Two straight blunt appendages project from the hinder end of the body. In most of these points, as will be seen later, the mealy bug resembles the young of the scale, but it is much fatter, rounder and. covered with meal. If it is disturbed, it may take a step or two, but its nature is very slugg ish, and it seems quite contented to remain in one spot, busily fattening itself. Both the mealy bug and the scale, are female cocci, the males of which are furnished with wings. The particular scale which I examined, attacks the Abulilon trees in our green-house, and both it and the mealy bug do considerable damage. It is a small oval, yellow or brown in colour, and varies in length- from one-sixth of an inch _ to a size barely visible ta Fig. 15. — Scale on Leaf. Fig. 26. — (A; Inside of Scale, showing Young. Fig. 27. — (b) Young, much, magnified. plants ; sometimes in great quantities, and, as jt spreads (juickly, frequently causes considerable damage. If an old brown scale be lifted from the surface of the plant, minute red bodies, just visible to the unaided eye, are found underneath it. These are the young, while the scale which protects them is a degenerated female insect which lives upon the sap of the plant, and reproduces its young in this manner. The scale insect, then, is a good example of degeneration. The mealy bug, which attacks green-house plants in the same manner, is closely related to the scale, although it does not undergo so complete a degenera- tion. It is about the same size (about one-sixth of an inch), and has very much the same manner, of life. It is round in shape, of a reddish colour, and covered all over with a white mealy substance. Its body is the naked eye. It is best examined by opaque light with 1-3 in. objective, either on the leaf or on a slide. The young are seen by taking an old scale of the leaf and laying it, lower surface upwards, on a slide. It will then be seen that the scale is more hollowed out in one part where it is black or dark in colour, and that here four or five young cocci are ensconced. They usually present very obvious signs of vitality, and walk all over their shield, evidently unaccustomed to the light of day suddenly brought to bear on them. Their bodies are oval in shape and very flat, with two bright eyes and two long hair-like curved caudal appendages. They have six legs, and two hairy antenna;, which are used as feelers, when they walk about. Their body is divided into several narrow segments, which are elevated into a slight ridge in the middle line. In appearance they some- HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 53 what resemble the mealy bug to which they are near relatives. In spite of the fact that later in life they :are very inactive, at this early period they walk freely about and thus it is that the scales are found at sonie distance from each other. Very soon the young coccus settles down and begins to degenerate. By very little care you may find scales no larger than these young. At this stage, they are slightly red in colour, and preserve more the appearance of the young than they do later : the eyes are still distinct ; the segments are more clearly marked off from ■one another, the caudal appendages are still present, and the general shape of the body is only slightly convex. As the scale gets older, it becomes larger, anore convex and more scale-like. Sometimes the Tjack is marked with a few black lines which give it a somewhat tortoiseshell appearance. It is at first yellowish-green, then as the markings get stronger it turns brown. Even at this late stage, traces of its former condition may be seen. Thus you usually find at the posterior end a well-marked indentation, and this marks the interval between the two projecting angles of the last segment near the root of the caudal appendages. The eyes, which are very indistinct, and the useless legs and antennc'c can still be seen. The body is very thin, except — if the specimen be not too old — near the middle line where it is sac-like, and contains the young in an embryonic condition. In short, the scale is now a degenerate organism, motionless, feeding, increasing in bulk so that it may develop young, and form a shield over them for their protection. The useless organs — that is the ■organs not concerned in this task — have shrivelled away, and the structure has modified itsell to suit this purpose. This is a very interesting object for microscopic study, and may be easily possessed by those who have access to a green-house. Besides the species here described, there are others common in green- houses which attack different plants. Bernard Thomas. ON SOME ADDITIONAL ACCESSORIES TO THE MICROSCOPE. By Thomas H. Holland, A.N.S.S. IN an examination by reflected light of such ob- jects as sand-grains and small crystals, it is -desirable, sometimes, to investigate the characters of ■surface-markings, such as etch-figures, oscillatory combinations of two distinct crystalline forms, or other external peculiarities of minerals. Again, the great numbers in which the remains of small and low forms of life are found in the fossil state, adds to the importance of their accurate determination by the palaeontologist. In studying specimens of, say, foraminifera, bryozoa, or small brachiopoda, it is necessary to turn the individual about in all sorts of manners to examine the appearances presented on all sides. Now, one of the chief difficulties in dealing with such small specimens, whether of minerals or of fossils, is to find a convenient method of handling the object, whilst subjecting it to a microscopic examination. In holding the object in the hand, from the way in which one's hand persists in going in the wrong direction when one's attention is occupied with the specimen, it is more a test of patience than a process attended with satisfactory results. The absurdly simple contrivance described below, may, to a large extent, obviate this difficulty. A sphere of wood, ivory, cork, or other suitable vA\ \'\\\\'v\\'\ "\\\\\\\\\\V \ Fig. 23. material of about \ in. diameter, is divided into two along the plane of a great circle. Each half is available for use, and out of each, a concentric hollow hemisphere, of less than f in, diameter, is Fig. 29. turned as shown in Fig. 29. By using a small piece of wax, the specimen to be examined may be so mounted that it is, as nearly as possible, coincident with the centre of the hemisphere, which can be placed, as shown in Fig. 28, over the central circular aperture of the microscope-stage. Seeing the edge of this hole touches the hemisphere in a circle of co'nstant diameter, equal circular sections of the sphere are always cut off, no matter to what angle the plane of the great circle of the hemisphere be tilted. The circle, therefore, is always the same distance from the centre of the sphere, consequently, any object, mounted centrally, always remains at the [Continued on page 56.) E o Q tn I" S • 2 <U w r- " <UCO O C/: i-H <U 2h -5 S ; i; S • Si "O, - (/) O ^* ••— I -^-f ;^ ^ o ■o tx o ON CO o o ..1^ CO ro CO c/i qj « j: OJ 42 O ^ -5 rt P O >^ rS a « "-E-i c« 00 T:i CO ri i-i X) 4= .s ^ »J ' J ^^ ^ ^ >- t- - So ci o i;4^ >-. u. ^ O <u >--, c o ^ i: <u' 5 S: " i^J « ^ ^S~ fc/j in p ?; >— I I- fl cq >~>h rt o C i^ a, c o OJ o c o >. ' 43 G I-' O o w ^ o - T-f 43 u ^: '43 O *" §-^ -St o " en ^*-. 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CA! p O S <1 o i=i . o ci 8' Cfi CJ 1) ^3 C :::5 ci ci Ji o 71 p-9 M^ t/) ci O U o Q o o Q Q Oh c 3 CO 'a; C ci O rt O S- ci -p Cj ffif f f o "^ H-rt - o ci . O ' o tjO o ci rt ;3 -o <u o "" C o H-' en T3 rt E^ '• • • • • • • • cS • - - d >ii o CO • <^ • t-H o • o 8 • • ■ii o o ■rt- hH »-o o ro 'J- n- fCT o 00 ro ■ i-i iri - - '^^ H-i t^ lO 00 00 "-" to w PO , ^ , , K ^ , • , , • , • ^ OJ o > m tn •^ bfl ci o t>^ b/) .— 1 o rt O ■ . b/} O rt o b/) o ■4-* rt O h(-1 rt o ci O 1^ rt O O bn <u 'rt'il -*-* , , -*-i H-. H-t o - > ^ 0) rt O H CJ CJ 1) OJ o D 4) 1) (U <U H-t p > > > > > >• >• >■ o «^ <ij '^ yA h-1 h-1 ►-1 h-^ ■^ ^ h-l hJ H^ . . ■ 1 V5 . • • t^ •b i o a 0) bZ) :2 -n r3 OJ ,i4 • rt rt S 0) S5 rt & rt ci pq rt i2 • d Q i^ Ph CH b;] a • • o 'oj .tf "oJ eq rt P3 11 H rt :ap^ ?= CO . 0) <u , • 1 <u . 4) • in • • ifi d i-< (U . 1 ii^ d 3 • ^ • 'ci Vh a o 173 ci o C rt ci > "in ^ • o J2 O a, C/3 en -4-1 o CJ Q 1-1 r^ rt w 15 U ■CO ;? CJ CO ON r~» o lr> a^ 00 >j^ o O "-> 10 "^ ^ • • • • • ^ 1^ ^ u^ t^ 1-^ N oo 00 00 • • ■ • • CO CO CO 00 CO CO CO 00 »H hH HH HH "^ '^ I.N t-i " HH l-l 56 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. same distance above the stage, and hence never moves out oi focus. And, because, in every sphere, a horizontal circle has always a vertical axis, the centre of the sphere must be vertically above the centre of the circular aperture of the stage ; hence, no amount of rotation of the hemisphere can move the object out o'i field. The specimen, then, can be turned about in all sorts of ways, without the faintest chance of the observer being inconvenienced by its shifting, either out of field or focus, and, at the same time, permitting the use of objectives of fairly hij;h powers. By turning out a conical hole of the size and shape shown in Fig. 28, this simple contrivance may be employed in transmitted light, for adjusting sections of crystals, which are supposed to have been cut in any particular direction; but, which, as is almost always the case, only approximate what they are represented to be. Suppose, for example, a section of a doubly refracting, uniaxial crystal is required, normal to the optic axis. Then, by em- ploying the hemisphere, the section can be so adjusted that its optic axis is exactly parallel to the line of collimation of the instrument. Another simple addition I have found useful in the examination of imperfectly transparent mineral fragments. It consists of a hollow cone of blackened cardboard, made somewhat after the style of a Bunsen cone. The cone may be so placed that its wider end rests upon, and is concentric with, the stage of the microscope ; whilst its narrower end above, loosely encircles the objective and allows of a limited amount of focussing down. Thus the stage with the cone may be freely and uninterruptedly revolved, and, at the same time, every trace of reflected light cut off. This appliance, which can be made of varying sizes to suit the various objectives employed, is especially useful in examining well-worn sand- grains of, for example, some pleochroic mineral, when it is obviously essential to be rid of all re- flected light, seeing reflected light, would, in any case, be prejudicial to a correct observation of pleo- chroism, and in some cases, where the specimen is but imperfectly translucent, be sufficient to com- pletely eclipse tlie very feeble amount of transmitted light. N'orinal School nf Science, SoiilJi Kensington. ABNORMAL GROWTHS ON FOREST- TREES, The Beech Knot. AMONG the many curious and abnormal growths which are found on branch, root, and stem of our forest trees, the above, the beech knot, is among the many curious and interesting. 1 have of late, and on previous occasions, observed in some journals and papers a short notice of the above growths, attributing their origin to fungus^ insects, accident, and such like. I have recently collected many specimens of the above abnormal growths and other tree excrescences and diseases. I have made a close study of them in many woods on many large trees, on various extensive properties where I have been engaged. They are not previously treated nor illustrated in any journal, as far as I am aware ; after a careful study of them, I shall, with thehelp of the following illustrations, try and interpret, in an intelligible way, what I consider to be the cause of their origin and after-development. I have termed them the Beech Knot, because they are most numerously found upon that tree ; but we find them common upon the oak, ash, elm^ alder, chestnut, holly, evergreen oak. They are not due to insects, fungus, nor accident ; but are perfectly natural. Neither may they be taken as an indicatiorr of health nor disease, nor are they in any way attributable to any particular soil or situation. They are perfectly numerous on some trees ; on others comparatively rare ; some die off early and rarely attain the size of a pigeon's egg, while I have found some really large and remarkable specimens. How are they caused, is the main inquiry, and particularly, how do they grow ? In the barks of our forest trees are contained a multitude of latent buds which are developed and grow under certain favour- able conditions. Some trees possess this property in a remarkable degree, and often when the other parts are killed down by frost in severe winters, this property of pushing out these latent buds into growth, often preserves the life of the plant. HA RD WICKE' S SCIENCE- G OS SIP. 57 These buds having once begun to grow adhere to the woody layer at their base, and push out their point through the bark towards the hght. The buds then un- fold and develop leaves, which elaborate the sap carried up the small shoot. Once elaborated, it descends by the bark, when it reaches the base or inner bark. Here it is arrested, so to speak, and deposited between the outside and inner layer of bark, as can be observed for the future layer of woody matter, if the base is not firmly connected, it is liable to be pushed out, and lose its connection inwardly. Then the knot may be said to be now entirely between the inner and outer bark ; with a knot of woody matter ; or, the woody layers and leaves. In those knots that retain their hold at the base they are very liable to be enclosed in the future Fig. 31. Fig. 3^. Fig. 40. Fig. 32. Fig. 33- Fig. 37- Fig. 38. Fig. 39- Fig. 41. Fig. 42. Fig. 43 on examining specimens on trees in the wood almost anywhere. Then this growth, as we shall see, is due to a defective circulation, because in these trees such as the ash, sycamore, and oak, where the shoots are more vigorous and strong, there are fewer knots found, because the strong growth of the shoot causes a better circulation. First, we note the bark of the silver fir, and the base of the branch where it originally sprang from. Observe this is of importance, for when the bark is expanding layers of woody matter, where they are found on sawing up timber. The knot may be said to have passed its first stage and is represented at Fig. 32, and, as we have observed, is first due to the buds and small shoots springing out of the bark. They are also fed by the leaves which they develop, as they generally lose their leaves about the second and third year. The shoots also dying back (see Figs. 33, 34, 35. 36, 37, 38, 39, 40). Then how do they grow and attain a large growth, seeing that they are deprived both inwardly and outwardly of any visible means of 58 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. obtaining and manufacturing nourishment for their support ? I have shown in a former paper, how a root of a tree can grow and form layers of woody matter after being deprived of any visible means of obtaining nourishment. We have observed how the knot is formed. Once deprived of all visible means of ob- taining matter by leaves of its own, it is fed by the bark, and will live and increase yearly in size, adding additional layers of woody matter, hence its growth, and will live and increase in size in this manner as long as the bark supplies it with matter. These growths are many times irregular and curiously twisted. The layers of woody matter when cut up and polished, present a beautiful surface. I have examined several hundreds of these knots of all ages and stages of growth. I have found at least the half of them have no connection inwardly, they have lost connection (see Fig. 43). They are seated between the bark, and are most easily knocked off the tree. At this stage any one can take a knife and pick out the inner bark which is between the knot and the layer of wood, and see this for himself. Among the various forms to be found, these (see Figs. 34, 37, 40) are the forms most likely to live longest. These (38, 39), from their neck-hke con- nection, are more likely to die off earlier, because the sap, when descending down the stem, does not circulate so freely around the knot as these others which have a closer and better connection. It must not be supposed that all knots lose the shoots. I have found several instances (see Fig. 41), where both branch and knot continued growing. In time, the knot would be enclosed in the growth of the branch. On some trees, for instance, the Cryplomeria, I have found knots of woody matter, not caused in the same way as these described, but due to branches which impede the sap and cause the bark to rise in folds, so to speak, which form knots of woody matter at such parts where there is a stagnation of sap and impediment to the free enlargement of the bark. The Scotch pines, both those of a moderate and those of a larger size, are liable to curious knots. I had often wished for some trees to be cut so that I could get them dissected and examined. Latterly, by the effects of the great gales, this opportunity did come. I found that these growths (Fig. 30) were due to broken and pruned branches, particularly if two or three were quite close together. This caused a stagna- tion and irregular deposit of woody matter, at those parts which caused these curious growths. I have found some very large and remarkable examples of these growths. The larch is not very guilty of such growths. I have found many instances of them. After inves- tigating them, I found them due to broken and to pruned branches, which caused an irregular growth of the bark overlapping, so to speak, resulting in an irregular growth of the bark. The arrows in each figure, mark the course of the ascending and descending sap, Robert Coupar. Ashjord Castle, co. Gahvay. COLOUR DEVELOPMENT IN LEAVES AND FLOWERS. WITH regard to my quotations from Hermann Miiller as to the visits of bees to the poppy and two periwinkles, Mr. Bulman cautions me that the absolute number of visits, not the number of species observed on the flowers, is the important point. This, of course, is quite true, but there is nothing to show that in the cases mentioned, the distribution of the total number of visits was not roughly proportional to the number of species ; indeed, Muller's remarks seem to indicate that this was so. Mr. Bulman's own observations on the comparative number of insect visits to the chickweed and Veronica Biixbaicniii, growing in the same garden, are interesting, and with his other observations certainly seem to tell against the theory. I do not, however, feel justified in giving up the theory of the production of blue flowers by the selective action of bees merely on the strength of these experiments, which are possibly capable of being explained away on a further knowledge of the con- ditions. With regard to Sir John Lubbock's experi- ments, the interpretation seems plain enough, that bees, from whatever cause, prefer blue to other colours, and as to the inconsistency with " observed facts," I must say that this is, in my opinion, far too comprehensive a phrase to apply to a difference of result arrived at by Mr. Bulman. At least, I hope, it is clear that the experiments upon which Sir John's opinion is founded are not a matter of "teaching" bees " to take honey off different colours" ! Mr. Bulman says that "it is hardly possible to be otherwise than dogmatic " upon questions touching " advanced " flowers. This may be so, but he imme- diately afterwards goes on to speak of the ' ' lowly mark of symmetry," tic, and as he has ventured on to this dangerous ground, I must, in justice to the theory in question, follow him. To take first, then, his instances of highly developed flowers which are not blue. Mr. Grant Allen considers that the Orchid- acea; "have mostly got beyond the monochromatic stage altogether." As to the Boraginacece, I cannot consider them at all a primitive type, though they do possess "the lowly mark of symmetry." Their honey-concealing tubes, the various appendages to the corolla for excluding " unbidden guests," and other contrivances for • ensuring cross-fertilisation, surely mark thern out as highly developed. These are among the characteristics usually considered to constitute an organism "advanced" — increasing HARD WICKE ' S S CJENCE- G O SSI P. 59 complexity of structure adapted to more perfect exercise of function : and because it is in some cases difficult to judge organisms correctly by this standard, that is surely no reason for giving up the word when there can be no doubt as to what it indicates. The Campanulas, again, though regular as to the shape of their flowers, may well be considered an advanced type, taking into account the adaptation of the bell- like form to the visits of humble-bees, the honey protected from many insects, the well-marked pro- terandry and subordinate contrivance for cross-fer- tilisation : the same may in part be said of the Scillas, As to the position of the Veronicas among the Scro- phulariacccc, a few words of Midler's throw^ some light on the question : " In spite of its apparently simple flower, Veronica is by no means a primitive genus among the Scroiohularinece ; the symmetrical flower, the specially differentiated nectary, the reduc- tion of the sepals and petals to four, and of the stamens to two, are all characters widely removed from the primitive type. The short-tubed species of Veronica must be looked upon as the more primitive, from which the long-tubed type of V, spicata has been evolved by the agency of bees and sand-wasps." The yellow iris is, I take it, a special case not yet under- stood ; similar cases are ably discussed in the chapter on " Retrogression " in Mr. Grant Allen's " Colours of Flowers." From this I will quote the " hypothetical explanation " of the colours of the Ligulata;, Mr. Bul- man's last instance : " The primitive ancestral composite had reached the stage of blue or purple flowers while it was still at a level of development corresponding to that of the Scabious or the Jasione. The universality of such colours among the closely allied Dipsaceae, Valerianeae, Lobeliacese and Campanulacese, adds strength to this supposition. The central and most primitive group of Composites, the Cynaroids, has kept up the original colouration to the present day ; it includes most of the largest forms, such as the artichoke, and it depends most of any for fertilisation upon the higher insects. Very few of its members have very small florets. All our British species (except the degenerate Carlina) are purple, sometimes reverting to pale pink or white, while Centaiirea Cyaniis, our most advanced representative of the tribe, rises even to bright blue. Next to the Cynaroids in order of development come the Corymbifers, some of which have begun to develope outer ligulate rays. Here the least evolved type, Eupatorium, with few and relatively large florets, is usually purple or white, never yellow. But as the florets grew smaller, and began to bid for the favour of many miscellaneous small insects, reversion to yellow became general. . . . The Ligulates were again developed from yellow-rayed Corymbifers by the conversion of all the disk florets into rays. Ap- pealing for the most part to very large and varied classes of miscellaneous insects, they have usually kept their yellow colour ; but in a few cases a fresh progressive development has been set up, producing the violet -blue or purple florets of the salsify [Tragopogon porrifolius), the deep blue Sonchus Alpinus, and the bright mauve succory, Cichorium Intybiis." Mr. Bulman says that he is not at all satisfied that M tiller intends in the words quoted by me about the appearance of red, violet and blue in flowers to assert that the most advanced flowers are usually of these colours. As Midler does not categorically state this, it is rather difficult, in the face of Mr. Bulraan's warning about the use of the word "advanced," to show it. The general conception of the meaning of the word is, however, I believe, what I have in- dicated above ; and there is no doubt that generally speaking " flowers whose honey is quite concealed and which are visited by more or less long-tongued insects " have undergone various and extensive adaptations of structure which fit them for, the more perfect discharge of the function of fertilisation by means of these insects. The blue colour in Hepatica and Verbasctim is to be explained as developed by the SyrphidiE, to which the flowers are adapted and which admire bright colours, being themselves brightly adorned, as the result of sexual selection. (Mlille'r). It is certainly rather startling to be told that a statement of Midler's in his " Befruchtung," " com- pletely annihilates the whole Darwinian theory of the development of flowers by the selective agency of insects," when we consider that Miiller seeks all through the book in question to explain the whole of the structures met with in flowers as the result of natural selection acting through insect agency. The fact is that Mr. Bulman has, not exactly misquoted, but given the wrong context to Miiller's statement, which really runs : "that in general antJiophilous insects are not r(7«yf«^^ by hereditary instinct to certain flowers, &c." (the italics are my own) ; while Mr. Bulman's version of it is " bees are not confined,' '&c., which is a very different matter. Keeping the italicised words in mind, we see that Mr. Bulman's argument about the " complete annihilation " of the Darwinian theory falls to pieces ; for the phrase " anthophilous insects in general" is not synonymous with "bees," and to say that they are not " confined " to certain flowers by hereditary instinct is not at all the same thing as to say that they have no hereditary pre- ference for certain flowers ; yet this is the conclusion which Mr. Bulman has drawn. To enforce this obvious difference we have only to read another statement of Midler's: "The most specialised, and especially the gregarious bees have produced great diff'erentiations in colour, which enable them, on their journeys, to keep to a single species of flower." I am afraid, therefore, that I cannot agree with Mr. Bulman that Miiller's conclusions on this point would have been more in place in his paper than in mine. 6o HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. Mr. Bulman then goes on to say, that he " cannot make out from what premises " my " remarkable conclusion " on the evolution of red and blue in flowers is drawn. Now it is quite obvious that the passage alluded to is not a "conclusion" in the logical sense at all ; I should have thought, indeed, that it was perfectly clear that I had not attempted, and could not possibly have attempted in a paper of the length of mine, any arguments upon which such a conclusion could be based ; but that I had simply pointed out the results obtained by two representative men on the subject, and indicated, in the passage referred to, their common conclusions. If, therefore, Mr. Bulman looked for " premises," it is not wonderful that he could not find them. I am very sorry that Mr. Bulman finds it "an inscrutable mystery" how the facts and arguments of my paper are supposed to oppose his views. I am afraid that to convince him on this point is a task to which I am quite unequal, but I may remark here that, supposing it to be so, it is curious that he should think it necessary to write nearly nine columns, pre- sumably with the object of refuting them. As to Mr. Bulman's argument about the distrust of red which bees would acquire from visiting reddish buds and faded flowers, it seems to me that is based on an altogether unjustifiable assumption, viz. that bees, the representatives of one of the longest lines of descent among anthophilous insects, are so un- intelligent as not to know the difference between a faded flower or a bud and a flower in its prime. Mr. Grant Allen does consider the chemical process in the faded flower analogous to that taking place at the appearance of variations, but it is surely clear that the new colours could not be evolved from colours appearing after fertilisation. In conclusion, I must submit that Mr. Bulman has not made good his charges against the theoiy of colour development through iiisect selection ; he has, I think, in the course of his attacks, revealed several points where our knowledge is not sufficient to enable us to speak authoritatively, but though there are very likely some details, such as, for instance, the sup- posed strict sequence of colour-development put forward by Mr.' Grant Allen, which will have to be modified later, the general principle of the theory remains untouched. Apart from the « //wr« argu- ment derivable from the theory of natural selection, the hypothesis must, of course, to have a firm basis, be established by the inductive method, and I do not think that, at present, the evidence is sufficient to establish it as a great scientific generalisation, though it has gone far in that direction. As Mr. Darwin said of his own great induction, of which this theory is but a comparatively insignificant branch, it must at present find its support chiefly from "connecting under an intelligible point of view a host of facts." A. G. Tansi.ey. PARASITES OF THE WHITE ANT (BENGAL). By W. J. Simmons. THE depredations of the white ant in India have earned for it the hearty dislike of all classes of the community. Its reputation is so distinctly and exclusively evil that mischief is sometimes attributed Fig. 45. Parasite No. i. The Figs, show the mouth — parts, ciliation, nucleus, and ingested particles of food. In Fig. 44, Tricho- cysts are observable. to the poor insect which it could not by any possi- bility perpetrate. The story goes that the native record-keeper of a Mofussil Court, being unable to HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP, 6i produce certain valuable documents, defended him- self by solemnly declaring that their mysterious dis- appearance was due to white ants, which had not faction to many out here to learn that our termite does not get off scot-free ; but that the relentless destroyer of books, clothes, furniture, papers, grain, 1 ig- 47- Fi^. 46. Fi^'. jo. Fig. 49. Fig. 5£. Fi,'. 53. \> Vh 54- Fig. 55- 49 and 50. — Views of a form of nioutli- Figs. 46 to 54. — Specimens in which the hyaline cap is replaced by a hyaline sphere. Figs. ,, ^-. r u parts dift"erin< slightly from those observable in Figs. 44 and 45. Fig. 49 is focussed for the siirlace, and Hg. 50 'or }"<= con- stricted interior of the " pharyngeal tube." Figs. 49 to 53.— Views of the Parasite in various amceba-hke forms : ingested food-particles occupy the posterior portions of the infusorians delineated. Fig. 55.— Ruptured cuticle of parasite flattened out, as seen with Seibert's ,'-th water immersion. only devoured the missing papers, but had entirely demolished the very iron safe wherein they had been deposited ! It is, therefore, a source of quiet satis- and even garden-plants, is himself victimised by parasites. The readers of your Journal in other parts of the world may also be interested in a short 62 HA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSSIF. notice of work on the Infusoria which I have found in the intestinal canal of white ants in Calcutta. These parasites are referable to the order Holo- Iricha. They appear to differ specifically from the Infusorians, also Holotrichous, drawings of which from Professor Leidy's paper on the Parasites of the Termites, are reproduced in Plate xxviii. of Mr. Kent's "Manual of the Infusoria." The changes of form in the Bengal species are almost as Protean as in the Amoeba (Figs. 49 to 52 and 53). The animal- cule, which for want of a name I shall designate Parasite No. I, is a strong and a rapid swimmer ; in these respects its movements are suggestive of the Paramgecia (Figs. 44, 45, 46). The measurements of four of average size, taken after death, were as follows : (a) length ^", breadth .^" ; [b) length ^,-,", breadth ^fik " ; (^) length ^ij ". breadth .^g " ; [d) length ^jjg ", breadth jlg". The cilia at the anterior extremity are directed forwards, and being longer than those distributed over the body, they form a ciliary collar around what I take to be the mouth- parts of the organism. In some cases the cilia at the posterior extremity are slightly elongated, and form a more or less conical tuft ; but in respect of length they do not approach the cilia of the collar. The body frequently shows parallel spiral markings, which may indicate the position of the cilia, or a ridged surface. I have observed what I take to be tricho- cysts in a few cases (Fig. 44), though I doubt if these are constantly present in the cortical layer of the parasite. There is a distinct and large nucleus, of circular form ; but I have not yet detected any con- tractile vesicle, a feature this organism shares in common with the genera Trichonympha and Pyrso- nema of Leidy. The body is generally gorged with food, identical in appearance with the contents of the alimentary canal of the termites in which the parasites occur. They appear, therefore, to live directly on the semi-digested food-contents of the intestine of their host. No one who has once examined the living active mass which inhabits the white ant will be surprised at the voracious appetite of that destructive insect ! I have spoken of the " mouth-parts " of the organism, by which I mean an external hyaline cap, surmounting a narrow tube, perhaps pharyngeal, which is in most cases prominently located at the anterior extremity, and fringed by the ciliary collar (Figs. 49 and 50). It does not occur in all the para- sites I have had under observation, and, moreover, in some instances the cap is replaced by a minute hyaline sphere (Figs. 46 and 54). The tube which I refer to as being probably pharyn- geal is constricted in the middle. In favourable positions it can be "worked down" through the hyaline cap (Figs. 49, 51), and it then resembles an oral opening. Such of the parasites illustrated in Professor Leidy's paper as have been reproduced in Kent's work have no mouth-parts resembling those observable in the animalcula which infested a large proportion of the white ants I examined ; and there are other differences. I nevertheless express myself provisionally as to these organs being mouth-parts : I have not seen food pass into them, nor through the constricted tube, nor have I detected food in its im- mediate neighbourhood, indeed the dimensions of some of the ingested particles have been such as to preclude the possibility of their having traversed that tube, unless it be dilatable. From the identity of the food-stuffs in the parasite with those in the intestinal organs of the termite, we must infer with Mr. Leidy that an oral aperture exists ; or else assume that temporary digestive cavities are formed, and the food particles involved as in the Amoeba. The latter assumption, however, is scarcely tenable ; the cilia appear to spring from a cuticle. I have paid some attention to this point, because it would be interesting to determine how the abundance of ingested food in the animalcule gains admission into its body. I have often observed the infusorian spinning rapidly on its longer axis without making, or seemingly even attempting to make progress forwards. Its revolu- tions have been too rapid to admit of my ascertaining whether or not it was feeding. Again, in swimming through the semi-digested food of the termite, the anterior extremity of the parasite often assumes the helicoidal form observed by Professor Leidy in Trichonympha agilis. Tentatively I incline to the belief that on one or other, or it may even be on ,both, of these occasions the animalcule is taking in food. In two instances I found parasites with two tubes terminating in a single cap, and I was at first disposed to regard this as evidence of longitudinal fission ; but I have more recently obtained the animalcule in forms suggestive of reproduction by transverse fission, and it is obvious the subject needs further investi- gation. Calcutta, ASTRONOMY. By John Browning, F.R.A.S. AT the meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society held on the nth of January, the Rev. S. J.. Perry read a paper on the surface of the sun in 1888. Observations of the sun were made at Stonyhurst on 241 days in the year; the sun was without spots on 102. The number of days without spots is rapidly increasing. There were nine such days in 1S86, twenty-nine in 1887, and forty-two in 1888. As a number of small spots in a group were observed on the last day of the year at the high latitude of 36^ south, the minimum period is probably drawing to a close, as the appearance of such groups generally portends a new period of maximum disturbance. A paper by Mr. I. Roberts on "Photographs of the Nebulae in the Pleiades and in Andromeda," was- HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 63 read. A photograph of the nebulce in the Pleiades, which was shown, was enlarged four diameters from the negative, which was exposed four hours, and was taken on the 8th of December, in which the structure Avithin the nebula is well defined. An admirable photograph of the nebula in Andromeda had also four hours' exposure, and shows that the nebula is a bright central mass, which is surrounded by a stream of nebulous matter, spiral in form at a considerable inclination to the line of sight. These photographs were taken with a reflecting telescope of 20 inches aperture, and they agree with those taken with a 13-inch refractor by the brothers Henry. Mr. Taylor, at Sir H. Thompson's observatory at Hurstside, has observed nine lines in the spectrum of the nebula in Orion, and two faint lines in the green in the nebula in Andromeda, also one faint line in the green in the nebula in Lyra. In March, Mercury is a morning star in Capri- cornus. Venus is an evening star, shining brilliantly in the aiorth-west after sunset. Mars is an evening star. Jupiter is a morning star. Saturn is a morning star. March 5th, Venus will l)e at the least distance from the sun at 8 hrs. aft. March i8th, Mercury will be at the greatest •distance from the sun. March 25th, Venus will be at her greatest bril- liancy. There will be no occultations of interest during ]\Iarch. Rising, So2ithiiig, and Scfiing of the Principal Planets in March. Rises. Souths. Sets. D. h. m. h. m. h. m. 5 5 44M 10 32M 3 20A Mercury 5 . 12 5 36M 10 27M 3 i8a 19 5 29M 10 30M 3 31A I 26 5 23M 10 39M 3 55A 5 7 33M 2 56A 10 19A Venus ? . .| 12 7 IIM 2 50A 10 29A 19 6 48 M 2 4IA 10 34A 26 6 22M 2 28a 10 34A 5 7 25M I 52A 8 19A Mars cT 12 7 7M I 44A 8 21A 19 6 48M I 36A 8 24A 26 6 30M I 28A 8 26A r 5 3 31M 7 27M II 23M Jupiter X. A 12 3 7M 7 3M 10 59M 19 2 43M 6 39M 10 35M ^ 26 2 19M 6 15M 10 IIM f 5 2 37A 10 15A 5 57M Saturn T?. .| J2 2 7A 9 46A 5 29M 19 I 37A 9 17A 5 IM ( 26 I 8a 8 48A 4 32M NOTES ON NEW BOOKS. /t Monograph of the British Uredinece and Ustila- -/x giiiccv, by Charles B. Plowright, F.L.S. (London : Kegan Paul). Mr. Plowright is well known to the readers of this Journal, many of whom will remember with pleasure his numerous contribu- tions on a subject to which he has ardently devoted many years of patient investigation. He has now laid students under a debt of gratitude by the publi- cation of this handsomely got-up volume. The two natural orders of fungi here treated upon are perhaps the most interesting and common of any groups of fungi. Mr. Plowright deals very fully with their biology and life-history, also with the methods of observing the germination of their spores and of their experimental culture. To agriculturists particularly this work will prove invaluable, for the special sub- jects the author describes are those under which so many of their crops suffer. There are thirteen chapters, the last two of which, on " Spore Culture," and the "Artificial Infection of Plants," are deeply interesting. Then follow long and technical de- scriptions of the British species of these two orders. The work is illustrated with eight plates, containing a large number of exquisitely drawn figures illus- trating the points of Mr. Plowright's work. We heartily recommend those of our readers interested in the subject to procure it for themselves. Rock-Forming Minerals, by Frank Rutley, F.G.S. (London : Thomas Murby). Mr. Rutley is well and widely known as one of the best mineralogists and petrologists of the day. He has been equally suc- cessful both as a lecturer and a writer on these subjects. We are often requested by readers to recommend a work of this kind, and the notice of Mr. Rutley's book, therefore, will be a sufficient answer. It is admirably adapted to the wants of practical students, and the fact that it has been issued in a cheap form will make it none the less welcome to them. The author deals with the necessary appa- ratus, methods of preparation and examination, in- cluding examination by polarized light, optical axes, single and double refraction, reflection, and general microscopic determination. After having fully ex- plained these methods of investigation, Mr. Rutley next leads the student on to learning the leading characters which distinguish the common rock-form- ing minerals from one another, and he gives such a detailed description of the various kinds, accompanied by illustrations, that no reader can fail to identify them by the aid of this book. It is illustrated by 126 woodcuts. In and About Ancient Ipswich, by Dr. J. E. Taylor, F.L.S., &c. (Norwich : Jarrold .and Sons). The Editor's position with regard to this handsomely got- up work precludes criticism ; he may be allowed to state, however, that in it he has endeavoured to describe the origin and growth of an old English 64 HA RD WICKE' S SCIENCE- G OSSIP. town. The palaeolithic and neolithic inhabitants of Ipswich and the neighbourhood are referred to as far as material afforded. The author then proceeds with a chapter on " Roman Ipswich," and gradually traces the antiquarian and historic development of the town up to the present time. The work is printed on hand-made paper, and is embellished by fifty capital illustrations of the most picturesque and historic parts of this very old town, by Mr. Percy E. Stimpson. Two editions were simultaneously issued — a large imperial 4to., and a demy 4to. The number of the large-paper edition being limited, the price has gone up a guinea since the day of publication. OUR SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. [The Editor will be obliged, if, for the benefit of his numerous readers, secretaries of scientific societies will send notices like the following, also place and time of meeting.] T^AST London Natural History and Microscopical i ^ Society: President, W. Smart ; Hon. Secretary, A. Dean. Wakefield Naturalists' Society: President, J. Ger- rard, Esq. ; Hon. Secretary, \V. Rushworth. Manchester Working Lads' Association. Lads'' Literary and Scientific Society : President, Sir Henry Roscoe, M.P. ; Hon. Treasurer and Secretary, Mr. G. Devine ; meeting room, The "Museum" Lads' Club, Mulberry Street, Hulme. Hiiddersfield NaiJiralists' Society : President, J. H. Kirk, Esq. ; Hon. Secretary, S. L, Mosley, Beau- mont Park Museum. Iliiddcrsficld Board Schools Natural Histoiy Society : President, J. W. Robson ; Hon. Secretary, ; Conductors of Ramble, Mrs. H. Rawlings and Mr. S. L. Mosley. Haslingden Natural History Society : President, 7^1 r. Thomas Holden ; Secretary, Mr. David Halstead. SCIENCE-GOSSIP. We have received from Mr. Cecil Carus-Wilson his paper on "Musical Sand," read by him before the Bournemouth Society of Natural Science. He enumerates the localities in which this sand is found, especially that of the Isle of Eigg. He shows that the musical sound is probably due to the grains, which are smooth, round, and nearly the same size, rubbing together. If any dust or water, or in fact anything which would in any way interfere with this rubbing together, is added the sound is at once lost. Starting on these data, Mr. Carus-Wilson set to work to make an artificial musical sand. Up to the time of reading his paper he had only succeeded in making a sand, which, on being struck "gave out the same characteristic ' swish ' that we get from all musical sands when they become mule." We have received Numbers viii., ix., and x. of the "Illustrated Manual of British Birds," by Howard Saunders. The illustrations are exceedingly truthful, and very artistic, and the letter-press is all that could be desired. The experiment of founding a centre of University Extension in Chelsea has proved very successful. Mr. Lant Carpenter's lectures on " Electricity in the Service of Man " have proved extremely satisfactory. The Committee have arranged for a course on "Astronomy," with lantern illustrations, by Mr. J. D. M'Clure, on Friday evenings. There will also be an evening course on Tuesdays on "^Yealth and Industry," by Mr. Llewellyn Smith. Dr. S. R. Gardiner will continue his Monday afternoon lectures on "Modern History." The Rev. Arthur C. Waghorne has in preparation a complete list of the flora of Newfoundland and Labrador, as far as it is known, to be published the coming summer. Hitherto the most compete list has been that of Mr. Reeks, which only comprised 37s species, besides varieties. Mr. Waghorne's contains about 900 species of flowering plants, about 50 ferns, and over 250 mosses and lichens. His list will give the common English, and, as far as it is known, the common Newfoundland names. It will also include the flora of St. Pierre and Miquelon. The January number of " Research " contains a capital portrait and biographical sketch of Mr. J. W. Davis, F.L.S., F.G.S., the now famous ichthyologist. Mr. Davis is only forty-three years of age, and he has had much work to do in his own commercial busi- ness, as well as public, municipal, and other work. Nevertheless, he has found time for original research of the most accurate and valuable kind, and "Re- search" is perfectly justified in according to this genial and hard-working Yorkshire amateur scientist that high meed of praise which those who know him best also know he best deserves. B. B. Le T. will find an account of Lord Bute's beavers in "Notes and Jottings from Animal Life," by Frank Buckland. The " Echo " states that Dr. Kruss, a celebrated chemist of Munich, has succeeded in decomposing cobalt and nickel — substances hitherto believed to be elements. There is one constituent common to both. Can readers afford further information ? Mr. Alfred C. Haddon writes from Thursday Island (Torres Straits) to " Nature," describing the employment there of the sucker-fish (Echeneis), in fishing for turtles. The natives make a hole in the caudal fin, or tail, of the fish, and fasten a cord to it, so as to make the fish secure. Another cord is passed through the mouth and out by the gills. By means of these two cords the fish is retained, while slung over the sides of the canoe, in the water. When a HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 65 turtle is sighted deep down in the water, the front piece of string is withdrawn, and plenty of slack is allowed for the tall string. As soon as the sucking- fish spots the turtle, after swimming round it, it attaches itself to the reptile's carapace. Then a man with a long rope attached to his arm, dives into the water, and is guided to the turtle by the line which had been fastened to the sucker's tail. As soon as he reaches the turtle he gets on its back, passes his arms behind and below its fore-flappers, and draws up his legs in front and below the creature's hind- flappers. In this position he is rapidly drawn up to the surface, of course bringing the turtle with him. It is as good as a chapter of "Alice in Wonderland." On the arrival of the intrepid diver at the surface, the sucking-fish changes its position from the turtle's back to its plastron, from back to front. Then, Mr. Haddon tells us, after the gaper, or sucking-fish, has done its work in turtle-catching, it is eaten. That is thoroughly human. Nevertheless, he informs us, that the natives have a "great respect" for the gaper. We have received an interesting paper on the " Evidences of the Antiquity of Man in Leicester- shire " by Montagu Browne, F.G.S., Curator of the Town Museum, Leicester. The paper consists of four divisions. In the first, dealing principally with bone and horn, mention is made of a wattled well dis- covered in Leicester about fourteen feet below the surface of the ground, which, as our author shows, had most probably an origin long before the Romans occupied the site. The rest of the paper describes the implements, &c., found in the well, and on the various ground-surfaces above, and others found in the neighbourhood. Thus the second chapter deals of pottery, the third of bronze, horse-trappings, &c., and the fourth of stone implements, such as hammer- stones, or pestles, and querns. The most important remains are figured by the Collo-type process. MICROSCOPY. The Quekett Club.— The January number of "The Journal of the Quekett Microscopical Club" contains the following papers:— "On the Structure of the Valve of Pleurosigma," by T. F. Smith ; " On the Formation of Diatom Structure," and " Some Observations on the Human Spermatozoon," by E. M. Nelson; "On some Remarkable Coccids from British Guiana," by S. J. M'Intire; "Notes on Mounting Diatomaces?," liy H. Morland ; " On Pcrophora Lister i," and " On Lininias cormiella" by C. Rousselet. Preparing Coffee-Bean for Sections.— Mr. J.'s failure in preparing a coffee-bean for section- cutting by soaking in water, is probably due to his neglecting to destroy its vitality. This may be effected by soaking in methylated spirit, or in a one-per-cent. solution of chromic acid in water, and then it may be prepared as Dr. Marsh recommends. — Ernest O. JShyers, Hotmslorv. "The Journal of Microscopy " for January is to hand. The following are the most important papers:— "The Nutritive Processes in Saccharo- myces," by Henry C. A. Vine (illustrated) ; "Micro- scopical Imagery," by Dr. Royston-Pigott (illus- trated) ; " Spider Gossip," by H. Vl. J. Underbill (illustrated); "Development of the Tadpole," by J. W. Gatehouse, Part v. (illustrated); "The Mam- malia: Extinct Species and Surviving Forms," by Mrs. Alice Bodington (illustrated), besides an abun- dance of interesting notes, &c. Folliculina Boltoni.— I am pleased to say I have found this curious and interesting infusorian this month (Feb. i) in fairly considerable numbers in a pool in the suburbs of Birmingham. Named after the late Mr. T. Bolton, its original discoverer, it seems to have been so seldom seen at any micro- scopical society's meetings, that I am very pleased to again come across it; its rarity possibly is more apparent than real. I have only found it once before, and then only one. No doubt its extreme timidity has something to do with its so seldom being seen by any one. I can only get it to show itself by patiently waiting, and allowing it to stand a time in the trough in which I have placed it. It is easily mistaken when retracted for a platycola, but when once it appears its identity is plainly manifest. It is interesting from the fact of its being our only freshwater representative (so far) of the folUculinas, all the others being marine forms ; it much resembles also Freia elegans, only its peristomal lobes are unequal, one lobe, the left, being about twice the size of the other; also in F. Boltoni the lip of the lorica is even, not everted. Saville Kent's figure hardly does it full justice, I fancy. I have examined about twenty specimens, and none of them fully represent his sketch. They are repre- sented by Kent as .^ in. in length, but my specimens measured rather more by the micrometer and crossed line ocular. It comes out well by good dark-ground illumination with a J-in. objective ; I think you see (in this case) rather more detail than by direct light. —E. IT. IV., Edgbaston, Birmingham. New Automatic Regulator.— Mr. J. H. Steward, 406 Strand, London, has brought out a new small-size automatic regulator for use with the limelight. As will be seen by illustration, it is fitted with a cap, cylindrical in form, and inside this is an indiarubber bellows, fitted top and bottom to metal discs, the upper one being acted on by a spiral spring, and the lower attached to a pair of lazy levers con- nected to eccentrics that open and close valve of cylinder. W^hen the bellows is full, the opening from valve of cylinder is closed, and, when partly or wholly 66 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. empty, is partly or wholly open ; in this way a <:onstant supply is kept in this miniature bag, and •the pressure is always equal right up to the last atom of gas. The spiral spring is of the strength that, •after considerable experiment, has been found to be perfect for either triple, bi-unial, or single lanterns, Fig. 56 Fig- 57- but for special purposes] lighter or stronger springs can be fitted, it being readily done by simply inserting them in their seatings after unscrewing the brass cylindrical cap of regulator. This valve will doubtless be appreciated by all those who use the oxy-hydrogen lamp with the microscope. ZOOLOGY. Parasite on Arvicola Arvensis.— lias Mr. C. F. George noticed the singular situation in which a parasite resembling Laelaps arvolica occurs, viz : — the tail of the short-tailed field-mouse (^Arvicola arvensis) ? Some time since, whilst preparing for the microscope the skin of this member, I was some- what puzzled by the discover>' of sundry oval bodies, apparently adherent to the hairs, and which at first I took to be the eggs of some creature. A closer inspection, however, revealed the fact that they were oval cavities, in the substance of the skin, in each of which was snugly ensconced a mite, which fitted its cell as closely as does the unhatched chick the egg- shell. At the time I failed to distinguish the form of the parasite, but was, subsequently, fortunate enough to find one or two sluggishly perambulating the surface, and this after being submitted to such rude treatment as the following : First, the skin was brushed with a very hard brush, to remove all adherent particles ; it was then submitted to a scrub in a strong soap lather ; rinsed ; again brushed with a stiff brush ; soaked in water for some hours ; stretched ; and finally subjected to pressure until quite drj'. Yet, upon examination, sundry of the parasites were, as stated, discovered still living, although not par- ticularly active. I regret that inexperience in the study of these parasites precludes me from determin- ing v.'hether or not this particular mite is identical with that figured by Mr. George, and, unfortunately, the immersion of the tail in balsam, and consequent obliteration of many of the creature's distinguishing features, renders identification next to impossible. — Edward II. Robertson. AcALEPH^ (Physalia).— I have received a very fine specimen of the Portuguese man of war, AcalephK (Physalia), a kind of Medusa. This marine animal, which is a very fine one, I have not seen on our South Devon coast for over fifty years. I remember gathering when a boy, after a long southerly gale, nearly twenty of them, and having my sleeves turned up, I placed them in my arms, and was fearfully stung by them, until the doctor applied remedies, which gave me relief, so I have cause to remember the occurrence. I should like to know if any one (reader of SciENCE-Gossip), has seen these marine animals on our coast this winter. The animal was found at the back of the Ness rocks, Slialdon, near Teignmouth, and given to me by a Mr. Woodhouse, who was staying at Col. Brines, the Ness Plouse, Shaldon. I have kept it in a large glass vessel, and hundreds of persons have been to see it. The colour of the tentacles was a beautiful deep blue, and they were about sixteen inches in length. The floating part, with the body of the animal was about six inches in length, of a sky- blue colour. — A. y. I\. Sclatcr, M.C.S., Bank Street, Teignmouth. Deilephila Galli. — I have a specimen of this moth which was caught here in 1887. — Henry Lamb, j\Iaidsto7ie. Dysthynia Lactuosa. — I caught a single specimen of this little noctua on the N. Downs, near Maidstone, last summer.- — Henry Lamb, Maidstone. Anodonta cygnea, Linne. — To be classed with a conchologist of such long standing as Dr. Henry Woodward is indeed an honour, and one to which I make not the slightest pretension. Mr. Williams cannot have read my note with any more care than did Mr. George Roberts, or he would have seen that the singular number, "variety-monger " was used, and he would not have placed the following atrocity, viz. " variety-mongerers," in inverted commas, as if it were a quotation from my note. It is only in fairness to myself, believe me, that I mention a single gram matical blunder. Further, the pretence is made, and very clumsily made, that my wish was to constitute Anodonta anatina, a variety. Now the word I used with regard to this form was " variation," and it will HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIF. 67 be seen directly by those who " understand why and wherefore the term variety was instituted," that, even had I the impudence, in my wildest dreams, to think of dogmatizing to the slightest degree, there would not be many grounds to go upon, though, according to the "modern" shell-collector, that would be of little consequence. The anatomical differences described by Mr. Lloyd * resolve them- selves on reference to the following assertion: "In Anodonta anatina the branchial cavity is not only comparatively, but actually much larger and fringed with much more delicate and numerous tentacles than in Anodonta cygnea." No details are given, no statement of how many specimens of each form were exaniined, and no measurements are recorded. Perhaps the words "had you been a little more modern," mean had you taken the trouble to look up trivial references, very recently ? If, however, Mr. Williams should be able to dissect the two forms, and to find out any real anatomical differences between them, "then" — returning the compliment — "when he has gained a scientific knowledge of what he is talking about we shall be pleased to hear from him again. "— IVil/red Mark IVebbl Perforating Birds'-Eggs. — Your correspondent signing K, D. will find that by stopping the holes in his birds'-eggs, he will prevent the moth and other insects getting into the shells. If the eggs are not stopped, and there is the least moisture left in them, the moth will very probably find its way in and spoil the shell by eating away all the inside membrane. I have a large number of species all stopped, and I have never but once found a moth in any of them, and, in that case, I must have stopped the moth in. The egg was sent to me from a distance. I now examine all blown eggs which come in, and in one egg I found a moth had established itself during the short journey from Nottingham. If K. D. intends being a large collector, I recommend him to use a pair of common bellows for blowing eggs, as they save so much lung power. The rough apparatus which I made two seasons ago, consists of a pair of bellows, with about eighteen inches of elastic tube, one end being bound to the nosel and at the other end a glass blow-pipe. With this simple machine I have often blown from fifty to one hundred eggs, with no other exertion to myself beyond holding one egg in one hand, and the blow-pipe in the other. It will blow eggs cleaner and much more quickly than they can be blown in the old way, by the mouth. — Joseph P. Nimn, Roys ton. The Activity of the Moth Kind. — In the summer of 1865, I was a young and ardent entomo- logist, and my curiosity was drawn to marvellous restlessness of the moth kind, whose occupation lay * " Annals and Magazine of Natural History," vol. v. (1870) pp. 65-6. amongst the flowers of a Hampshire garden. On the nincteentli and twentieth of July, I entered a memorandum. Byopliila perla, Triphana intcrjecta and the humming-bird moth have lately connected the flight of the day and night vagrants. Inteijccla commences its nimble motion a little before sunset glows in the trees, and when twilight falls the Bacchanalian Gamma moth comes swarming to the blooms, having spent the morning with me on the commons and meadows where it usually sleeps at noon. I watched them pilfering the petunias until the lights went out at midnight, and descending into the garden at the chilly hour that precedes the dawn, I came on one that loitered at the revels, leading me to suppose it had drunk both long and deep. As its friends were absent I conclude that they were over- come with the morning drowse. I eschewed the company of Gamma until this season, when, observing a noonday sleeper on a wheat stalk, half way between Ramsgate and Margate, I was tempted to snip his perch and bear him away in order to show his pretty ruff and silvery. I had carried him a good mile by the milestones, when awakening to suspicion he be- thought him to play truant and skipped away. — • A, PL Sii'inton. Balia Perversa, var. Irridula, Jeff. — On November 23rd last, I took four specimens of this variety from under the bark of old holly bushes in this parish. Has it been previously recorded from Great Britain ? The only locality I find mentioned for it in Jeffreys' " British Conchology," and Rimmer's " Land and Freshwater Shells," is the neighbourhood of Cork. — yohn Hawell, 31. A., Inglcby Greenhoio Vicarage, N'ortliallerton, Yorks. BOTANY. Notes on the Flora of the Wye. — It was my good fortune to spend my holidays this year in the beautiful Wye valley, when, in spite of the dull, rainy weather which characterised the summer months, I obtained a very fair list of the West of England plants. Making the pretty market town of Ross my centre of operations, I made frequent excursions to the outlying districts. A list of some of the charac- teristic plants of the neighbourhood will show more clearly than I can hope to describe, the wealth of vegetation to be met with here. Symonds Yat is a rocky gorge of precipitous limestone cliffs, richly and densely wooded from the rugged ivy-grown summits down to the base, where the Wye alternately glides deep and silent between steep banks, and tears itself into foam over the sharp stones that form its bed, with a noise like that of a cataract, as it spreads itself out over the shallows. It is difficult to imagine a more beautiful and verdant spot. The banks and dells are carpeted with mosses in infinite variety. There are 68 HARDWICKKS SCIENCE-GOSSI P. long tufts of dark Polytrichum, elegant mosses of transparent Mnium, and vivid Dicranum ; cushions of hoary Grimmia and rare Orthotrichum on the jutting rocks ; a mantle of feathery Hypnum spread over the ground and rocks. The cliffs have great pendent masses of the undulated foliage of Ncckera crispa and its near ally coviplanata ; while a profusion of Aspleniiim trichomancs fills up the clefts. A few minutes' search at the foot of the slope and Ccphalan- thcra ensifolia, Melica Jiniflora, and its elegant little relation, nutans, J^uzula Forsteri and pilosa, Orchis maadata, Listera ovata, Epipactis latifolia, Cardamine impatiens, Conium, Viscum, and a host of others are in my portfolio. Mounting by a steep intricate path, I find the gooseberry looking indigenous, the maple, cornel. Viburnum Lantana, and Opuhis ; reaching the top of the Yat, the pretty J'aleriana dioica in a stream, Lysimachia iicmoruin and I.uzula mullijlora ; in the boggy road. Milium, Liizula maxima, and the fox- glove in abundance are followed by the lady-fern, Filix-mas, Orcoptcris and dilatafa, iv nudum, and the oak-fern are not uncommon among the rocks. Once more descending the slope, I find Ophrys apifera, JIabenaria ckloraniha, Ilieraciiini borcale. Allium 7irsiniim, LiUiospermum atx'Oisc, Carcx rcmota, and ■nuiricata. There is also plenty of Hypcriciim monta- iium, hirsutum, and Androsamuni, Bromus erectus, and Geranium hicidnm. Atropa belladonna still grows about here, a specimen from near the Wye was gathered for me by a cottager. On the Coldwell Rocks, Fan's quadrifolia, mostly five-leaved, Daphne laureola, Vinca nnnor, Veronica montana. Cotyledon ; on a tree, Chrysospleniuni oppositijoliuni on the edge of a fountain in the rock, were found, with Valeriana officinalis and a plentiful growth of woodland herbs, woodruff, sanicle, hemp, agrimony, speedwells, poly- pody, galia in many species. By the river, Alenlha rotnndifolia, Thallctrum flavum, Rhinanthus, and Stellarianmbrosa ; climbing over the bushes Valeriana sandnicifolia were common on the banks and in the wood. On the slope opposite, Ophrys mnscifera, Cldora perfoliata, Sclerochloa rigida, were yielded after a little search. Space forbids me to notice many interesting plants, but some idea of the abun- dant flora may be gathered from the fact, that nearly all the above were found within half a mile from the station, and all within a mile and a half. About Ross a few plants worthy of notice may be found. The soapwort, Stellaria nemorum, .Egopodium podagraria, Onopordum acanthium, Kanuncnlns aix'ensis,jluitans. Allium compactum, QLnanthe crocata, Potamogeton in numerous species with other such plants as may be found on most river-banks. At Tintern, among an abundant flora, Euphorbia striata takes front rank, it is still plentiful both by the river and roadsides. Altogether the above localities yielded nearly four hundred species, omitting rubi, rasa, and numerous sjiecies of Potamogeton which I have left for another year. — H. IV. Monington. The Sunflower. — Mr. G. Wheatcroft asks you about this flower turning its face to the sun. I had many opportunities of watching them some years ago, and my conclusions were that they did turn their heads with the sunlight. The one that your correspondent observed as not turning was probably in the shade, as even a tree acts upon the flower and stops the motion. All the light that can be got is required by this flower to bring its seed to maturity, and this is dependent on the light falling full on the flower. It is no freak and no marvel ; it is a necessity ; but man has not dived into the causes of the visible actions around him. Sunlight is always with us somewhere, and without it no vegetation reaches perfection ; yet all grow to the light ; oats in Italian cellars stretch their long white heads to the window ; yew-trees on our open downs grow slender in their own shade, while their foliage extends chiefly to the south and east. Plants in our windows all stretch their tendrils to the light, yet no two seem to accept it in the same way. Colour has much to do with this, aided by the constituents of the body ; all of this is formed of water attracted as sap from root to highest leaf, and this foliage gives the plant its body, its flower, its fruit, and its seed. All is done by the wondrous powers of light. The sunflower is not the only one that shows its lore ; there are many that shut their petals as evening draws on, and I have heard tropical forests awakening with an audible murmur as the rising sun fell on their resting foliage. It was these visible actions that led to the publication of" Sunlight," where it is treated as a motor, with force enough in itself to create this earth from gaseous or nebulous matter more or less sensitive in its con- stituents to light, while in its whole it became the heterogeneous mass we live on, accepting light as a cause, and giving out warmth from that absorbed light to a zone extending some four or five miles above, and below the sea level. While science is occupied in useless endeavours to make their ends meet from the nearly ruined Nebular hj'pothesis of Laplace, a few outsiders are studying nature, and are coming to the true conclusion that sunlight rules this world now and was the cause of its creation. Hence vegetable and animal must have light. The more we study the subject, the more we see of that lore which dominates all the sunflower kinds. — H. P. Malet. Clifton Botany. — My criticism on the list of Clifton plants furnished to Science Gossip by "Way- farer " has been acknowledged by the author with such excellent temper that I am sure he will permit me to represent that " dehberately mis-stated precise localities " for plants, be these correctly named or not, must in effect be entirely pernicious. No useful purpose can be served by publishing the most pleasantly-written account of discoveries made under impossible circumstances. Grabbers of rarities and exterminators can be effectually baffled without HA R D WI CKE 'S S CIE NCE -GOS SIP. 69 making meadow-rue to flourish on solid limestone ; or stirring the bile of plodding botanographers by defining habitats which turn out to be several miles distant from the spots where specimens were actually observed. Slips of the pen seem innocent and harmless, but un- luckily they retain vitality enough to pass from book to book, gathering authority as they go, long after the possibility of taking the careless writer to task has passed away. If not shot at first sight, such lapses are hard to kill.— >.f. JVallcr White, Clifton. GEOLOGY, &c. "Geology and Mining Industry of Lead- viLLE, Colorado, ^VITH Atlas," by Samuel Frank- lin Emmons (Washington : Government Printing Office). This voluminous and well got-up volume (which forms the eleventh vol. of the " Mono- graphs of the United States Geological Survey"), sustains the high reputation earned by the preceding volumes. The author (Samuel Franklin Emmons) opens with a topographical description of Leadville ; its position, discovery, and devejopment. The narra- tive of the discovery of gold here, and the subsequent rush to the gold-fields is most interesting, and the stories of the fortunes made there, make a poor editor's pockets feel very light. Mr. Emmons describes the microscopical and chemical composition of various rocks and minerals associated with the district he has so well studied. The volume is artistically illustrated throughout, and a very useful geological atlas is added. One of the most important chapters is that on the Composition of Vein Materials and the Origin of Ores. This important contribution to mineralogical and geological science extends to nearly 800 pp. quarto. We cannot but compare the generosity with which the United States Government send out gratuitously to English scientific journals, with the beggarly conduct of our English Stationery Office, which does not even send out for review to the English Press any of the scientific volumes, brought out at such vast expense either by our own Geological Survey, or of the " Challenger " Expedition. Misconceptions regarding the Evidence WHICH WE OUGHT TO EXPECT OF FORMER GlACIAL Periods.— Dr. James Croll, F.R.S., recently read a paper on the above subject before the Geological So- ciety. He said the imperfection of the geological record is greater than is usually believed. Not only are the records of ancient glacial conditions imperfect, but this follows from the principles of geology. The evidence of glaciation is to be found chiefly on land-surfaces, and the ancient land-surfaces have not, as a rule, been preserved. Practically the several formations consist of old sea-bottoms, formed out of material derived from the degradation of old land-surfaces. The exceptions are trifling, such as the under-layers of coal-seams, and dirt-beds like those at Portland. The transformation of an old land-surface into a sea- bottom will probably obliterate every trace of glaciation ; even the stones would be deprived of their ice-markings ; the preservation of Boulder-clay, as such, would be exceptional. The absence of large erratic blocks in the stratified beds may indicate a period of extreme glaciation, or one absolutely free from ice. The more complete the glaciation, the less- probability of the ice-sheet containing any blocks,, since the rocks would be covered up. Because there are no large boulders m the strata of Greenland or Spitzbergen, Nordenskjold maintains that there were- no glacial conditions there down to the termination of the Miocene period. The author maintained that glaciation is the normal condition of polar regions, and if these at any time were free from ice, it could' only arise from exceptional circumstances, such as a peculiar distribution of land and water. It was extremely improbable that such a state of things could have prevailed during the whole of the long period from the Silurian to the close of the Tertiary. A million years hence it would be difficult to find any trace of what we now call the glacial epoch ; though if the stratified rocks of the earth's crust consisted of old land-surfaces, instead of old sea-bottoms, traces of many glacial periods might be detected. The present land-surface will be entirely destroyed in order to form the future sea-bottom. It is only those objects which lie in existing sea-bottoms which will remain as monuments of the Post-tertiary glacial' epoch. Is it, then, probable that the geologist of the future will find in the rocks formed out of the non- existing sea-bottom more evidence of a glacial epocli during Post-tertiary times than we now do of one, say, during the Miocene, Eocene, or Permian period "r Palaeontology can afford but little reliable information as to the existence of former glacial periods. In the discussion which followed, the president considered that the author underrated the amount of old subaerial surface. Many freshwater deposits, such as the Wealden, were fluviatile and hence subaerial. And if glacial materials had then been in the neighbourhood they would have been preserved. Professor Prestwich thought if glacial periods had formerly existed we should not be dependent only on land-surfaces, but the molluscan fauna of the Arctic seas, and the glacial debris and boulders spread over the bed of those seas would bear evidence of analogous conditions. We had in India and Australia some evidence in favour of such conditions in Permian and Carboniferous times, but these even were not yet fully established ; and as to Eocene and Miocene times, he knew of no evidence. Dr. Evans said, whether the theory were true or not, glacial conditions must in all probability have pre- vailed in some parts of the globe during all periods, though probably not always in the existing centres of glaciation ; and of these former glacial conditions some evidence was already forthcoming. The alleged misconceptions did not seem to him to exist, unless to a 7° HARDWI CKE ' S S CIENCE- G O SSI P. very small extent j Professor Seeley observed that in this case it was unsatisfactory to have to deal mainly with negative evidence. As Dr. CroU has not attempted to estimate the significance and origin of the boulders which occur in many geological dei:)osits, we are not bound to do the work for him. Every geologist admits that glaciation would be a necessary incident in any period of time if the land were high enough. Boulders thus formed on land might be imlsedded in a marine stratum when the land was subsequently depressed without indicating their age or origin. The contention for glacial periods was superfluous. The Antiquity of Man in America. — We have received a copy of Dr. C. C. Abbott's address on the above subject delivered before the Cleveland Meeting of the American Association for the Ad- vancement of Science (Section of Anthropology) in August of last year. Dr. Chas. C. Abbott entitles it the " Evidences of the Antiquity of Man in Eastern North America." This evidence consists almost entirely of the stone implements which have been found in such abundance in the Trenton Gravels in the Delaware valley. Dr. Abbott shows that the implements made of argillite are not, as has been supposed of Indian origin, but date back far previous to the occupation of America by the Indians to a time when they were manufactured by man coeval with the mammoth and the mastodon, and when the climate of Greenland extended to the mouth of New York Harbour. That the argillite implements were not made by the Indians, nor the flint and jasper ones by Paleolithic man is shown by the fact, that, except where they have become associated by subsequent ■cultivation of the soil, the two are seldom found together, the Indian implements occurring in the surface soil, while the paleoliths are found in the (Travels. The theory of the Esquimaux being the descendants of the paleolithic men of North America is upset by three skulls found in the Trenton gravel. These skulls are unlike either those of the Esquimaux or those of the Indians. NOTES AND QUERIES. Migration of Butterflies. — This "Indian summer " has closed with a heavy thunderstorm that raged all last night. Just now the air down here is perfectly still, not a leaf stirring, but looking up we can see by the motion of the clouds that a current of air is coming from the north. Borne along by it are hundreds of l:)utterflies, some flying so high that they only appear like black specks on the fleecy white clouds, iaut all moving onward as if with a fixed intent. They fly with a rapid movement of the wings, now and then soaring and floating on the air, and so are carried onwards until the rapid motion begins again. Unless you saw them, I tliink you would hardly believe how high these small creatures fly, and how strong they are on the wing. This migration of butter- flies is nothing new to us. Every year about this time we have what we call "a butterfly norther." One year it was stormy, and the butterflies blown about, settled in hundreds on the trees about our home. One large white oak was covered with them, and when the sun shone out they looked monotonously beautiful as they opened and closed their fire-coloured, silver-lined wings. I should like to know whence they start, and whither they go. Wherever they are born, in their larval state, they must commit great havoc on the foliage. It is a curious fact that these clouds of butterflies always consist of this one species. I will try and get one and send it as a specimen, and shall be greatly obliged if any reader of Science-Gossip will name it for me. While I write they are still coming from the north, and passing high over our heads on their journey south, they have been doing so all day ; some that are flying lower seem disposed to settle, so I hope I niay secure one to send. Several people in different parts of this country have also noticed this yearly migration of butterflies. — J. W. B. Blunt, Kerr Co., Texas. N'ovember, 1888. The Sheep Panic near Reading. — We beg to call attention to a remarkable circumstance which occurred in this immediate locality on the night of Saturday, November 3rd. At a time as near eight o'clock as possible the tens of thousands of sheep folded in the large sheep-breeding districts, north, east, and west of Reading were taken with a sudden fright, jumping their hurdles, escaping from the fields, and running hither and thither ; in fact, there must for some time have been a perfect stampede. Early on Sunday morning the shepherds found the animals under hedges and in the roads, panting as if they had been terror-stricken. The extent of the occurrence may be judged when we mention that every large farmer from Wallingford on the one hand, to Twyford on the other, has reported that his sheep were similarly frightened, and it is also noteworthy that with two or three exceptions the hill-country north of the Thames seems to have been principally affected. We have not heard, nor can any of the farmers give any reasonable explanation of the facts we have described. The night was intensely dark, with occasional flashes of lightning, but we scarcely think the latter cir- cumstance would account for such a wide-spread efTect. We would suggest the probability of a slight earthquake being the cause, but, perhaps you or some of the readers of Science-Gossip may be able to offer a more satisfactory explanation. — Oakshott &= Millard. Centipedes. — I have been greatly interested in Miss Gould's article, and should much hke to see a complete list of the British species, with short hints by which to distinguish them, or be referred to a work giving this information. Some are probably local. I have turned over a great number of stones and sought in other likely places when searching for mollusca, but I never remember to have seen either No. 4 or No. 7 in the illustration. My experience with Gcophilus clcctricits is that it gives much more light than the glow-worm ; I remember seeing one among grass on a road side, the surrounding grass was also luminous and my fingers became so on capturing the animal. — IV. A. Gain. Herring in Shore. — A friend and I had our holidays at the sea-side on the loth and nth August last, and had some sport, fishing among the ro(.ks. One of the fish we caught was a saith, which we cut up and found two large herrings in its stomach. To all appearance it had just caught them in the pool where we were fishing ; they were entire and fresh. The herring were near the shore. The Banff and HARD WICKE ' S S CIE NCR- GO SSI P. 71 Macduff fishermen shot their nets at from one to three miles out, and had good average catches. — W. Sim, Fyvic. Cats. — Mr. Mattieu Williams's note in the last number of Science-Gossip anent "Cats at the British Association," reminds me that at the little village of Dinas Powis, about four miles from Cardiff, a Manx cat was introduced to the neighbourhood very many years since and long ago went the way of all flesh. Nevertheless, to this day, individuals appear minus the caudal appendage, while its brothers and sisters adopt the prevailing fashion of cats in general, and appear fully equipped in this particular.— ]V. H. Harris, Cardiff. Pips Germinating. — I see in a recent Science- Gossip an account of a lemon pip germinating inside the fruit. The following came under my notice. Early in September of last year, my wife, having cut a lemon in two, was surprised to find in one of the halves what she supposed to be a piece of stick, which she took out and threw away. On examining the pips, &c., in the strainer after the juice had been strained, she found one of the pips with a root. On being told this I searched for the supposed piece of stick, and found it to consist of a plumule about three inches long, part of which was green, and two leaves, \ inch by \ inch, also green. The light must have penetrated through the rmd, or how comes it that the leaves were green ? I liave mounted the specimen, which I shall keep as a curiosity. — y, Taylor. NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS. G. F. Stutton. — If possible, we reply to queries sent us in the following month, but many objects have to be sent to specialists to name, and we have to wait their time. See the column in the " Wesley an Naturalist." Get Stank's " fSritish Mosses," coloured plates. M. P. — Get Thome's " Botany," published by Longman, price A,s. dd., for details of structure, &c., and the vol. published by the Christian Knowledge Society, "Flowers of the Field," by Mr. Johns, for hgs. and descriptions of British plants. J. J. HoLSTEAD, AND OTHERS. — There ought to be no difficulty in j'our getting Science-Gossip earlier now. We are publishing it a week earlier this year than before. F. C. King. — Many thanks. We were promised to have a continuation of the papers on "The Two Mirrors of the Micro- scope," as soon as the author could find time. A Young Collector. — The specimen you sent is Geraniuvi sylvaticiim. W. Sim. — Thanks for nice mounted specimen of insect, which is Tingris crassiockari. See coloured plate in the number for January, 1884. John Collins. — Your specimen appears to be a specimen of Nostoc. Mr. C. Carus-Wilson, of Bournemouth, Hants, wishes some correspondent to give him the address of the manufac- turers of wool slag used for non-conducting purposes. To Correspondents and Exchangers. — As we now publish Science-Gossip earlier than formerly, we cannot un- dertake to insert in the following number any communications which reach us later than the 8th of the previous month. To Anonymous Querists. — We must adhere to our rule of not noticing queries which do not bear the writers' names. To Dealers and Others. — We are always glad to treat dealers in natural history objects on the same fair and general ground as amateurs, in so far as the " exchanges " offered are fair exchanges. But it is evident that, when their offers are simply Disguised Advertisembnts, for the purpose of evading the cost of advertising, an advantage is taken o{ o\it gratuitous insertion of " exchanges " which cannot be tolerated. We request that all exchanges may be signed with name (or initials) and full address at the end. Special Note. — There is a tendency on the part of some exchangers to send more than one per month. We only allow this in the case of writers of papers. A. H. INIcBean. — The "locusts" mentioned as being the food of John the Baptist, are usually regarded as the insects, which are much eaten by the Arabs to this daj', and not the bean pod which goe^ by this name. ' n Mr. Cecil C/\RUS-Wilson requires a meteorite, Eozooit Canadcnse, platyscopic lens, geological diagrams or lantern slides (photo), the "Year Book of Facts" for 1878, by James Mason, the number of" The Atlantic INIonthly " containini; p. 657 (vol. xii.), and Nummulitic limestone. — Athlone, West Bourne- mouth, Hants. Wanted, a geological hammer. Offered, micro-slides of freshwater alga; (Batrachospermum, QEdogonium, Draparnaldia, &c.), and fresh, unutoiuited and mounted, but not cleaned, diatomaceee. Also numerous dried seeds and fruit.— Otto V. Darbishire, Ball. Coll., Oxford. EXCHANGES. Wanted, teeth and bones of different animals; also any rock specimens. Liberal exchange offered in first-class microscopic slides. — .A. J. Doherty, 63 Burlington Street, Manchester. What offers for A. Naquet's " Principles of Chemistry," W. Lee's "Acousics, Liyht and Heat," F. Guthrie's "Mag- netism and Electricity,'' " The Mechanic's Friend," and Vols. i. and ii. of " English Mechanic?" Micro accessories preferred. — A. \V. Watson, i86 Downham Road, Islington, N. An herbarium, British and foreign, in exchange for books of interest, or offers. — J. H. Lewis, F.L.S., 145 Windsor Street, Liverpool Street. Wanted, fossils from London clay, gault and permian, in exchange for good carboniferous limestone, coal measures, lias, or chalk fossils. — Peter J. Huberts, 4 Shepherd Street, Bacup. FoK exchange. — Beck's small microtome, D'Anvert's " Ele- mentary History of Art," M. C. Cooke's "Microscopic Fungi" (coloured plates), Milne's "Earthquakes and other Earth Movements," all new. Wanted. — Numbers of "Nature" (all or any), Nov. and Dec. 1887 ; lantern slides to illustrate paper on " Clouds and Rain ;" Lyell's "Elements of Geology " (state edition), and the following of International Scientific Series: "Volcanoes" (Judd) ; "Geological Hist, of Plants" (Dawson) ; "Weather" (Abercromby) ; "Forms of Water" (Tyndall) ; "Sociology" (Spencer); "The Sun" (Young). — F. Worgan, 34 Cedar Street, Derby. Offered, three microscopic fossil pearls, on slide. Wanted, Argicpe cristcHula, capsula, Lima eltiptica, subauriculata, Avicula hirundo, JModiolaria nigra, Lcpton sqjtajnosjtju, Loripes divaricatus, Isocardia cor, Tellina balaustina, Lyoti- sia Norvcgica, Tht-acia distorta, pubescens, Xearea 4 sp., Saxicava Norvegica, Gastrochccna dubia, PJioladidea papy- racea. Chiton scabridus, Trochiis Grmilaiidicus, occideiitalis, lantkina rotundata, Buccinuin sinistrorsmii, Humphrey- siaiutin, Buccinopsis Dalei, Fusus Xorvegicus, Turtoni, Isian- dicus, Berniciensis. — J. Smith, Monkredding, Kilwinning. Wanted, odd numbers of Braithwaite's "Moss Flora," or any British or foreign works on Hepaticae. Offered, stuffed or live birds, birds' eggs, micro slides, &c. Have a large number of stuffed birds for selection. — J. A. Wheldon, Chemist, York. Wanted, to exchange mosses and flowering plants for others ; also land and freshwater shells for others. — J. A. Wheldon, York. W.^NTED, Herbert Spencer's "Psychology," "Political Institutions," " Ecclesiastical Institutions," " Descriptive Sociology," and " Essays." Offered, dried flowering plants, mosses (mostly in fruit), Lyell's "Principles of Geology," Berkeley's " British Mosses," &c.— J. W. B., 56 Vine Street, Liverpool. Conchology. — About 300 specimens of U. timiidus, U. pic- torum, and A . cygttaa ; also a number of engravings of British and Continental varieties of unios and anodons. Wanted, Con- tinental unionidae, varieties of U. pictonim, or rare British helices, or offers. — Geo. Roberts, Lofthouse, near Wakefield. Duplicates. — 6'. comeuin, var. scaldiaiia, P. fontiiiale, var. henslowana, A. cygnea, var. incrassaia, P. contecta, P. nantileus, P. glaber, P. dilatafus, P. albiis, P. kypnoruni, V. pellucida, Z. glaber, Z. excavatus, var. vitriita, H. arbus- torum, var. jiavescens, H. concinna, H. sericea, H. ericetoricjii, vars. miliar and alba, P. umbilicata, var. curia, C. rugosa, var. dubia, C. tridens, C. minivuim. Desiderata, — P. roseurn, L. involnta, H. rcvelata, B. montanus, V. lillejeborgi, V. jnouiinsiana, V. angustior, V. munitissima, A. lineata, and many varieties. — Chas. Oldtiam, Ashton-on-Mersey, Cheshire. English land, marine and freshwater shells (named), in exchange for foreign